Poultry Feed is the most important aspect of poultry farming.Feed contributes to 80%of the total expence that are there in production of an egg and broiler.Its basicaly a mix of various Grains, De-oiled extractions on Ground nut,Soybean,Rapeseed,& Sunflower, & calciun carbonates.The nutrients that we have to balance while preparing a good feed are ME(Metabolise Energy),Protein,Calcium,Lysine,DL-Methionine and some others.Ingredients that are used in preparing poultry feed are Maize,Bajra,Deoiled Rice Bran,Rice Polish,Jowar,Soybean Meal,Deoiled Ground Nut Extraction,Deoiled Sunflower,Deoiled Rapesead,Fish Meal,Meat & Bone Meal,Shells,Marble Powder,Marble Chips.
The poultry industry relies on a few major ingredients for feed formulation. Cereal grains are the principal sources of energy in poultry diets, whereas grain legumes and oilseed cakes are the main sources of protein. Wheat, barley, triticale and sorghum are the key cereal grains and soybean meal, canola meal, peas, lupine and beans are important protein sources. The industry has always been inclined to use the cheapest ingredients to maximize profit.
Poultry Feed Sector
India is almost self sufficient in all inputs required for producing eggs and chicken meat. Consumption of commercial feed by the poultry sector at present is 28 million tones/year. The poultry industry is highly dependent on the feed industry, which is only 35 years old. The Indian feed industry caters predominantly to the dairy and poultry sector. Manufacture of feeds for other categories of livestock is practically nonexistent. At present, the Indian organized feed industry produces around 3 million tones of feed/year, which is only 5 percent of its actual potential. A substantial quantity of feed is prepared by the farmers themselves in order to reduce the feed cost.
Raw materials
The raw materials that are used for manufacture of poultry feeds are grouped as follows:
1. Cereal and grains: maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, bajra, ragi and other millets, broken rice, germs, middling and damaged wheat that is discarded from the food industry as unfit for human consumption.
2. Cakes or Oil meal: groundnut cake, soybean meal, rapeseed meal, sesame meal, sunflower meal, coconut meal, palm meal are used as protein resources.
3. Feed of animal origin: meat meal, fish meal, squilla meal, hatchery waste and bone meal are used. However, farmers face production problems due to bacterial contamination of fish and meat meal.
4. By-products: rice bran, rice polish, solvent extracted rice and wheat bran, molasses and salseed meal are by-products used in poultry feeds.
5. Minerals and vitamins: poultry feeds are enriched with calcium, phosphorus, trace minerals such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, CO and I and vitamins A, D3, E, K and B Complex.
6. Feed additives: additives commonly used are antibiotics (usage not banned in India) prebiotics, probiotics, enzymes, mould inhibitors, toxin binders, anti-coccidial supplements, acidifiers, amino acids, antioxidants, feed flavours, pigments and herbal extract of Indian origin.
Alternative feed ingredients
The use of alternative feed ingredients in poultry diets can be an interesting choice from an economically standpoint. But the nutritional value of the alternative ingredients should be kept in mind. Particularly the presence of anti-nutritive factors. As such ingredients do not always support optimum productivity, they are included in small amounts or efforts are made to improve their nutritive value. Despite these limitations, the use of alternative feed ingredients is increasing due to a variety of factors. Conventional feed ingredients are more expensive and are not readily available to all producers at all locations. Adverse climatic conditions and the use of feed ingredients in the biofuel industry have stimulated the search for alternative feed ingredients for poultry. The biofuel industry generates by-products such as distillers dried grains and solubles (DDGS), that not only need to be disposed of but are becoming core feed ingredients due to the shortage and cost of conventional ingredients. All over the world, but more so in areas experiencing feed shortage, alternative ingredients are investigated with the aim of replacing all or some conventional ingredients. With alternative diets, poultry productivity is often poor due to deficiencies in nutrients such as amino acids and minerals, imbalances in energy to protein ratios or anti-nutritive factors like non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), polyphenols or phytic acid. Researchers at the University of New England (UNE), Australia, have conducted research in recent years to find out how to improve the quality of those ingredients.
Cassava and cassava by-products
The use of cassava roots and other parts of the plant as an animal feed is traditional in Africa and Asia. Recently, cassava production began on a large scale in northern Queensland to support feedlots. There is a possibility that this industry could diversify into non-ruminant feed production in the future. In Thailand, the third largest producer of cassava, almost all cassava is used for animal feed and starch production. The latter industry yields a fibrous by-product, cassava pulp, which has been used for feeding cattle and pigs.
Replacement for maize
Researchers tested this product as a replacement for maize in diets for layers and established that 15% cassava pulp can be included in layer diets without detrimental effects on egg production and egg quality, except yolk colour, which was paler for diets containing cassava pulp. Supplementation with products with xylanase and phytase activities enabled an increase in cassava pulp inclusion to 20% in diets for layers and maintained egg production at the same level as the maize control diet.
Triticale for poultry
The UNE has conducted research on triticale for several years. A major limitation to increased exploitation of triticale for poultry feeding in Australia is a dearth of published data. The energy value of triticale was assessed as part of a larger project, the Premium Grains for Livestock programme, which included a wide range of grains. Chickens fed triticale-based diets retained more (P<0.05) energy in the form of protein and fat than those fed the wheat based diet. These diets may promote protein accretion and growth on the one hand while increasing meat fat content on the other hand. The results of the study show that the utilisation of energy in triticale is not poorer than that in conventional ingredients such as wheat and maize. Feed Cost As feed cost is the key factor in determining the profitability of poultry farming, feed manufacturers as well as farmers attempt to produce least cost rations by including some of the following products, depending upon their cost, availability and nutritive value: --forest produce (babul seed, rubber seed, tamarind seed, salseed, etc.); --food industry waste (biscuit waste, coco shell, bread waste, powder, cocoa beans, macaroni waste, skim milk powder, etc.); --gum and starch industry (guar meal, tapioca, tapioca spent pulp, etc.); --fruit and vegetable processing waste (citrus wastes, mango waste, tomato pomace, pineapple waste, tea leaves, etc.); --alcohol industry waste (yeast sludge, grape extractions, breweries’ dried grain, etc.). Availability of raw materials has increased as the production of food grains and oil seeds in the country have risen over the past few years. The production is estimated to be well over 190 million tonnes for food grains and 16 million tonnes for oil seeds. Increasing domestic production of maize, a major ingredient in poultry feed, is likely to contribute to the reduction of poultry feed prices. The liberalization of feed maize imports will also increase domestic supplies and provide a cushion for domestic production (Table 3). This will help to avoid possible feed crises such as occurred in 1992, which severely hurt the poultry industry. Feed concentrate sector is the small and highly volatile supply of quality feed ingredients. Feed manufacturers often face problems of adulteration of feed ingredients, such as when urea and sawdust are added to fish meal. Poor post-harvest handling and storage of feed ingredients result in low quality inputs. Analytical reports based on several thousands of samples spread over five years by a premier feed analytical laboratory (Personal Communication, 2002) situated in the egg laying belt of the country suggest that ground nut cake and maize should be regularly screened for aflatoxin. In these reports, 54.6 percent of maize samples and 99 percent of the ground nut cake tested positive for aflatoxin. The aflatoxin menace was observed both in rainy and non rainy seasons. Concomitant occurrence of other toxins viz. ochratoxin, citrunin were also reported. Briefly, the poultry industry is growing at a fast pace, which in itself is an indicator of the prevalence of a conducive environment. Along with the poultry industry, the feed industry is keeping pace. Hence most of the research work on animal feed is practical and focuses on the use of by-products, upgrading of ingredients and enhancing productivity in order to reduce production costs. Several innovative ideas have emerged in the trade sector to tackle critical situations. FACTS OF EGG • A hen requires between 24 and 26 hours to produce an egg. • Thirty minutes after laying an egg she starts all over again. • Most female animals have two functioning ovaries, but hens only use one, their left. The right ovary stays dormant. • A female hen is born with thousands of tiny ova which will one day become egg yolks. • A double-yolker egg is the result of two yolks being released at the same time. • During formation, the egg moves through the oviduct small end first. • Just before laying, it is rotated and laid large end first • Egg shell is made of Calcium Carbonate. • Nutritional values of brown & white eggs are same • Fresh eggs can be difficult to peel. The best eggs to use for peeling are more than a week old. • Laying an egg is known as oviposition. • The size of the eggs increase as a hen gets older. While the avian egg is a vehicle for reproduction, it also serves as a source of food for human consumption. The size and shape of avian eggs differs among the various species of birds, but all eggs have three main parts -- yolk, albumen, and shell The yolk is formed in the ovary. There is a small white spot about 2 mm in diameter on the surface of the yolk. This is the germinal disk and it is present even if the egg is infertile. If the egg is infertile, the germinal disk contains the genetic material from the hen only. If the egg is fertile, it contains genetic material from both parents and is where embryonic development begins. The yolk material serves as a food source for embryonic development. The egg white (albumen) is produced by the oviduct. There are four types of egg white . The outer thin white is a narrow fluid layer next to the shell membrane. The outer thick white is a gel that forms the center of the albumen. The inner thin white is a fluid layer located next to the yolk. The inner thick white (chalaziferous layer) is a dense, matted, fibrous capsule of albumen around the vitelline membrane of the yolk. The matted fibrous capsule terminates on each end in the chalazae, which are twisted in opposite directions and serve to keep the yolk centered. The chalazae are twisted so that the germinal disk always orients itself upwards. During storage, however, the thick albumen becomes thinner allowing greater movement of the yolk. When the egg is laid it is at the same temperature as the hen's body (about 105°F). As the egg cools to ambient temperature, the egg contents contract and the two shell membranes separate, generally at the large end of the egg, forming the air cell. The outer membrane sticks to the shell while the inner membrane sticks to the albumen. During storage, the egg loses water by evaporation, causing the air cell to enlarge. The shell is produced by the shell gland (uterus) of the oviduct, and has an outer coating, the bloom or cuticle. The cuticle somewhat seals the pores and is useful in reducing moisture losses and in preventing bacterial penetration of the egg shell. Much of the cuticle is removed from table eggs when they are mechanically washed. To replace the cuticle, table eggs are often sprayed with a light mineral oil mist. Egg Grades Grading is a form of quality control used to divide a variable commodity or product into a number of classes. Commercially, eggs are graded simultaneously for exterior and interior quality. When determining the grade of an egg, the factor with the lowest grade will determine the overall grade of the egg. Egg Shell Quality Shell color comes from pigments in the outer layer of the shell. Shell color is primarily a breed characteristic, although there is often variation among individual hens in a particular flock even when all are of the same breed and variety. Egg shells of commercial breeds of chickens are white or brown. Breeds with white earlobes ordinarily lay white eggs while breeds with red earlobes ordinarily lay brown eggs. White eggs are most in demand among American buyers. In some parts of the country, however, particularly in New England, brown shells are preferred. The Rhode Island Red, New Hampshire and Plymouth Rock are breeds that lay brown eggs. Since brown-egg layers are slightly larger birds and require more food, brown eggs are usually more expensive than white. While darker colored brown eggs tend to have thicker shells, shell color has nothing to do with egg quality, flavor, nutritive value, or cooking characteristics. The appearance of the egg, as influenced by severity of defects, is important for consumer appeal. Egg shells are evaluated on the basis of cleanliness, shape, texture, and soundness (see Table 1). Table 1. Summary of standards for exterior quality of chicken eggs. FACTOR GRADE AA or A B Dirty Stain - Must be clean - May show small specks, stains or cage marks that do not detract from general appearance of the egg - May show traces of processing oil - Slight stains - Moderate stains: - localized (single) < 1/32 of shell - scattered (2 or more) < 1/16 of shell (See Figure 2 for approximate surface areas) - Prominent stains - Moderate stains: - localized (single) >1/32 of shell
– scattered
>1/16 of shell
(see Figure 2 for approximate surface areas)
Adhering dirt or foreign material NONE NONE Adhering dirt or foreign material
Egg shape Approximately the usual elliptical shape Unusual or decidedly misshapen (very long or distorted)
Shell texture May have rough areas and small calcium deposits that do not materially affect shape or strength – Extremely rough areas that may be faulty in soundness or strength
– May have large calcium deposits
Ridges May have slight ridges that do not materially affect shape or strength May have pronounced ridges
Shell thickness Must be free from thin spots May show pronounced thin spots
Cleanliness
Most eggs are clean when they are laid, but they can become contaminated with manure or other foreign material. In the United States, an egg with manure or adhering material on the shell cannot be marketed. It is classified as dirty and cannot be used for human consumption. Eggs with stained shells are unattractive in appearance and cause eggs to be downgraded to B quality or dirty depending on the severity of the stain.
Shape
The “normal” chicken egg is elliptical in shape. Eggs that are unusual in shape, such as those that are long and narrow, round, or flat-sided cannot be placed in Grades AA or A. Round eggs and unusually long eggs have poor appearance and do not fit well in cartons so are much more likely to be broken during shipment than are eggs of normal shape.
Texture
An egg shell that is smooth is preferred since rough-shelled eggs fracture more easily and have poor appearance. Eggs with extremely rough, or uneven shells are downgraded to B quality.
Some eggs have a rough pimply appearance. The pimples (calcium deposits) are distortions to the shell. Infection is not responsible because pimpling also occurs in disease-free flocks. The defect may be partly hereditary.
Mottled shells have pale translucent spots (sometimes called “windows”) of various sizes. Such eggs appear normal when laid. The mottling develops later and may be noticeable half an hour after laying, although it is more easily detected a day later. This abnormality is inherited, although a similar effect can be induced artificially, such as when a wet, newly laid egg slides across the wire cage floor instead of rolling, or when a hen’s toenail scratches the surface of a recently laid egg.
Soundness
“Body checks” are eggs with shells that have been cracked during shell calcification in the hen and have had a layer of calcium deposited over the crack(s) before the egg is laid. Some body checks are covered by a relatively thick layer of calcium before being laid so are not easily detected unless eggs are candled. Other body checks are only covered by a thin calcium layer before being laid so they are easily detected.
The incidence of body checks will increase if hens are excited in the afternoon or early evening just as the egg shell begins to form in the oviduct. It is important, therefore, to keep hens as calm as possible, especially during the late afternoon and at night.
Body checks sometimes appear as ridges or bulges on the shell. Depending upon the extent and severity of the ridge or bulge, or the ease of detecting the checked area, body checks may be classified as B quality. These shells are usually weaker than normal shells, are more likely to break in shipment, and they lack consumer appeal.
Sometimes eggs have thin spots in the shell. The thin spots may appear gray and the shell is more likely to break in these areas.
Factors Affecting Shell Quality
Table 2.
Causes of shell quality problems.
CONDITION OF SHELL POSSIBLE CAUSES
A. Odd shaped 1. Inherited
2. Disease: Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, laryngotracheitis, Egg Drop Syndrome 76
3. Age of hens: incidence is higher in older hens
B. Thin, porous or shell-less 1. Inheritance influences porosity and ability to produce strong shells
2. Lack of sufficient calcium, phosphorus, manganese or vitamin D3
3. Vitamin D2 mistakenly substituted for D3
4. Excess phosphorus consumption, especially by older hens
5. Ingestion of sulfanilamide (sulfa drugs)
6. Disease: Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, avian influenza, Egg Drop Syndrome 76
7. Hens exposed to temperature over 85-90°F
8. Age of hens: incidence higher with older hens
9. Premature laying of the egg
C. Rough or abnormal shell texture 1. Inherited
2. Newcastle disease or infectious bronchitis
3. Excessive use of antibiotics
4. Excess calcium consumption by the hens
5. Copper deficiency
D. Mottled shells 1. Primarily caused by high or low extremes in humidity
2. Inherited
3. Manganese deficiency
4. Artificially induced
E. White strain layers producing tinted eggs 1. Primarily inherited.
F. Yellow shells 1. Extended use of high levels of certain antibiotics
G. Tremulous or loose air cells 1. Newcastle disease
2. Infectious bronchitis
3. Rough handling of eggs
4. Eggs stored large end down
H. Depigmented brown shell 1. Infectious bronchitis
2. High stress in the flock
3. Egg Drop Syndrome 76
Poor shell quality can result in downgrading. Table 2 lists some of the factors which may affect shell quality. Producers should be aware of these factors so they can take preventive actions to minimize the occurrence of costly downgrades. Management plays an important role in controlling all of these factors to produce eggs of high quality. To assure the production of high quality eggs, one should select a strain of birds known to produce eggs of good quality because egg quality is a heritable characteristic. Avoid prolonged periods of temperature above 86°F in the laying house, if possible. Use high quality feeds and adjust feed formulations according to feed intake and the age of the hens. Practice the necessary steps to prevent disease and other physiological disturbances in the flock. The time pullets start to lay can be regulated by controlling feed and light in a planned program. Because egg quality decreases with the age of the hen, the number of years to keep a hen should be considered in relationship to all aspects of the production plan.
If one disease had to be singled out as being responsible for the majority of the economically significant production losses in egg layers, it would be infectious bronchitis. Not only is egg shell quality affected, but internal egg quality also declines. Watery whites are very common and can persist for long periods after egg production returns. Also, an infectious bronchitis outbreak can result in a pale-colored shell in brown eggs. However, other factors, such as stress, are also responsible for causing a pale-colored shell.
Another disease which may affect shell quality is Egg Drop Syndrome 76 (EDS 76). EDS 76 was first identified in Britain in 1976. A vaccine was quickly developed and the disease seemed to disappear. However, it has recently reappeared in the Netherlands. The disease is mainly characterized by a drop in egg production early in lay, or by a sudden fall in production at a later stage in the laying period. In the beginning the symptoms include shell-less eggs and thin-shelled eggs, deformed eggs, and, in the case of brown eggs, a loss of shell color. In addition, the whites of these eggs are very watery, and there is considerable variation in egg weight.
Interior Egg Quality
Interior egg quality is based on air cell size, albumen quality, yolk quality, and the presence of blood or meat spots (see Table 3).
Albumen Quality
The albumen has a major influence on overall interior egg quality. Thinning of the albumen is a sign of quality loss. When a fresh egg is carefully broken out onto a smooth flat surface, the round yolk is in a central position surrounded by thick albumen. When a stale egg is broken out, the yolk is flattened and often displaced to one side and the surrounding thick albumen has become thinner, resulting in a large area of albumen collapsed and flattened to produce a wide arc of liquid.
Properly refrigerated eggs stored in their carton in a home refrigerator will change from AA-grade to A-grade in about 1 week and from A-grade to B-grade in about 5 weeks. However, a properly handled and refrigerated intact egg will retain its nutritional value and wholesomeness for a considerably longer time.
The albumen occasionally contains blood and/or meat spots. Both chemically and nutritionally, these eggs are fit to eat. The spot can be removed, if you wish, and the egg used. USDA regulations, however, classify eggs with blood or meat spots as inedible (see Table 3).
Table 3.
Summary of standards for interior quality of chicken eggs by candling.
INTERIOR QUALITY
FACTOR AA Quality A Quality B Quality Inedible
Air cell 1/8 inch or less in depth 3/16 inch or less in depth More than 3/16 inch Doesn’t apply
White (albumen) – Clear
– Firm – Clear
– May be reasonably firm – Clear
– May be weak and watery Doesn’t apply
Yolk Outline slightly defined Outline may be fairly well-defined Outline clearly visible Doesn’t apply
Spots (blood or meat) None None Blood or meat spots aggregating not more than 1/8 inch in diameter Blood or meat spots aggregating more than 1/8 inch in diameter
Less than 1% of all eggs produced have blood spots. Blood spots result from hemorrhage of a small blood vessel in the ovary or oviduct. If the blood spot is on the yolk, the hemorrhage was probably in the ovary at the time of ovulation or in the infundibulum part of the oviduct before albumen was laid down. If the blood spot is in the albumen, the hemorrhage probably occurred in the wall of the magnum part of the oviduct. Meat spots are degenerated blood spots, loose pieces of ovary or oviduct tissue, or cuticle remnants swept up to the magnum and included in the albumen.
Leghorn strains vary in the number of eggs they lay with blood spots. Eggs from brown-egg layers will usually show a higher incidence of blood and meat spots than those from white-egg strains.
Ambient temperature has also been shown to have an effect on the incidence of blood spots. Fewer blood spots have been observed with Leghorn hens at 32°C (89.6°F) than with Leghorn hens at 21°C (69.8°F).
Factors affecting albumen quality are listed in Table 4. Excluding disease, the single most important factor affecting albumen quality of fresh eggs is the age of the hen. As the hen ages, albumen quality decreases. An induced pause in egg production (induced molt) has been shown to improve the albumen quality of subsequent eggs. Albumen quality of the eggs is not greatly influenced by hen nutrition. Environment and housing, even heat stress, appear to have almost no direct effect on albumen quality of freshly laid eggs.
Table 4.
Causes of albumen (egg white) quality problems.
CONDITION OF ALBUMEN POSSIBLE CAUSES
A. Increased thin white 1. Inherited
2. Diseases: Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, laryngotracheitis or Egg Drop Syndrome 76
3. High egg storage temperature
4. Age of hens: incidence higher with older hens
5. High level of ammonia from droppings
6. Loss of CO2 from egg
7. High vanadium levels in the feed
B. Greenish albumen in fresh eggs 1. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) in feed: this is natural and is not undesirable
C. Cloudy white 1. High CO2 inside egg: may result from oiling egg too soon after lay
2. Refrigeration of fresh eggs at low temperatures (32 to 39°F)
D. Pink white 1. Cottonseed oil (contains the fatty acids malvalic and sterculic acid)
E. Blood spots 1. Inherited
2. Increased blood spots occur with sudden environmental temperature changes
3. Age of hens: incidence higher with older hens
4. Deficiencies of vitamin K (probably rare) or vitamin A
5. Sulfaquinoxaline may increase incidence if vitamin K is marginal
F. Meat spots 1. Inherited
2. Bits of ovary, oviduct or cuticle
3. Blood spots dissolved from blood pigment
G. Spoilage by bacteria and molds 1. Green whites (under UV light) Pseudomonas bacteria
2. Black rots caused by Proteus bacteria
3. Molds can cause either green or black appearance when candled
Watery egg whites have been shown to be caused by high levels of vanadium in the feed. High levels of vanadium can come from certain sources of inorganic phosphorus. Usually these sources are not mined, but certain high-vanadium deposits have occassionaly shown up in the feed industry.
Remember that eggs are perishable and will deteriorate in quality if not properly handled. Oiling of eggs within 24 hours of lay is very effective in slowing down reduction in albumen quality, but does not replace the need for cool storage.
On very rare occasions, a hard-cooked egg white may darken to a caramel shade due to a high amount of iron in the cooking water or to a chemical reaction involving components of the egg white. Using fresh eggs and cooling them quickly after cooking helps to prevent this darkening.
Yolk Quality
Yolk quality is related to its appearance, texture, firmness, and smell. Table 5 lists some of the factors affecting yolk quality.
Table 5.
Causes of yolk quality problems.
CONDITION OF YOLK POSSIBLE CAUSES
A. Blood spots 1. Inherited
2. Increased blood spots occur with sudden environmental temperature changes
3. Age of hens: incidence higher with older hens
4. Deficiencies of vitamin K (probably rare) or vitamin A
5. Sulfaquinoxaline may increase incidence if vitamin K is marginal
B. Yolk color variation 1. Pigment level in diet
2. White yolks:
1.
• a. Unknown disease condition
• b. Capillary worms
• c. White corn, grain sorghum, wheat or barley in ration, without pigment supplement
1. Olive or salmon colored yolks: caused by 5 percent or more cottonseed meal containing gossypol or cyclopropene fatty acids in the diet
C. Mottled yolks 1. Nicarbazin (anticoccidial drug)
2. Gossypol (cottonseed meal)
3. Worming compounds: piperazine, citrate, phenothiazine, dibutylin dilaurate
4. Tannic acid
5. Calcium deficiency
6. Age of hens: incidence is lower in older hens
7. Inherited
8. Storage time, increases with time
D. Thick, pasty, rubbery or cheese-like yolks 1. Crude cottonseed oil
2. Severe chilling or freezing of intact egg
3. Seeds of velvetweed and other related species
E. Off-odors 1. Chemicals for treating parasites
2. Fruits, vegetables, and flowers: never store in egg cooler
3. Household detergents: use only special egg washing detergent/sanitizer materials
4. Moldy flats, cases or egg room
F. Flat yolks 1. Weak vitelline membrane: age of eggs, improper storage temperature, age of hens
2. Indirect effect of poor egg shell quality
3. Nicarbazin (anticoccidial drug)
The yolk of a freshly laid egg is round and firm. As the yolk ages, it absorbs water from the albumen and increases in size. This weakens the vitelline membrane and gives the yolk a somewhat flattened shape on top and a general “out-of-round” shape. Ruptured yolks occasionally occur.
Severe chilling or freezing of intact eggs can result in rubbery yolks. A similar condition can result if hens consume crude cottonseed oil in the diet or if they consume seeds of velvetweed or other related plants. The yolks of eggs laid by hens consuming velvetweed seeds become rubbery, viscous and pasty in appearance after a short period of cold storage. The eggs appear normal before refrigeration. Cottonseed, velvetweed, and other related plants contain cyclopropenoid compounds, which tend to increase the percent of saturated fat in eggs, tissues and milk.
Velvetweed, which is also known as velvetleaf, Indian mallow, butterprint, button weed and American Jute, is an annual that grows well in corn fields. Velvetweed generally reaches heights of 3-6 feet. Its leaves, which can reach up to 5 inches wide, are heart-shaped and covered with soft velvety hairs. Producers who raise their own grain need to make every effort possible to destroy velvetweed in the field. Those who purchase corn need to be aware of the potential presence of velvetweed seeds in corn screenings.
Double-yolked eggs occur when two yolks move through the oviduct together, either from simultaneous ovulations or delay in a yolk’s passage through the oviduct. Such eggs are usually larger due to the presence of the two yolks. Eggs with three or more yolks are extremely rare and never reach the marketplace.
Color
Yolk color depends on the diet of the hen. If she gets plenty of yellow-orange plant pigments known as xanthophylls, they will be deposited in the yolk. Hens fed mashes containing yellow corn and alfalfa meal lay eggs with yellow yolks, while those eating white corn, grain sorghum (milo), wheat or barley yield light-colored (platinum) yolks. Natural yellow-orange substances such as marigold petals may be added to light-colored feeds to enhance yolk color.
In any consumer survey of egg quality, yolk color ranks high but preference varies among countries. Some consumers prefer white-colored yolks while others prefer a light-colored yellow yolk. Other consumers prefer a darker orange yolk. In most cases the diet is altered to produce egg yolks of the correct color for a particular market.
Yolk pigments are relatively stable and are not lost or changed in cooking. Sometimes, however, there is a greenish ring around hard-cooked egg yolks. It is the result of sulfur and iron compounds in the egg reacting at the surface of the yolk. It may occur when eggs are overcooked or when there is a high amount of iron in the cooking water. Although the color may be a bit unappealing, the eggs are still wholesome and nutritious and their flavor is unaffected. Greenish yolks can best be avoided by using the proper cooking time and temperature, and by rapidly cooling the cooked eggs.
Sometimes a large batch of scrambled eggs may turn green. Although not pretty, the color change is harmless. It is due to a chemical change brought on by heat and occurs when eggs are cooked at too high a temperature, held for too long after cooking, or both. Using stainless steel equipment and low cooking temperature, cooking in small batches, and serving as soon as possible after cooking will help to prevent this greenish discoloration. If it is necessary to hold scrambled eggs for a short time before serving, it helps to avoid direct heat. Place a pan of hot water between the pan of eggs and the heat source.
Mottling
It is essential that the vitelline membrane remain intact and strong in order to prevent the contents of the albumen and yolk from mixing. If mixing occurs, the quality of the egg and consumer acceptance of these eggs declines because of “mottling.”
The degree of yolk mottling is related to the amount of degeneration of the vitelline membrane. The greater the damage to the membrane, the more severe the mottling.
What Is Egg Mottling?
When an egg is said to be “mottled”, the yolk surface is covered with many pale spots or blotches. These areas are of different colors, or shades of colors, and can vary in size. The spots can range from being somewhat transparent, to a brownish-orange to almost black in extreme cases. A slight degree of yolk mottling is normal and does not contribute to the negative attitudes regarding consumer acceptance of eggs. A high incidence of yolk mottling decreases consumer acceptance, even though mottling has not been shown to affect the egg’s nutritional value or flavor.
What Causes Mottling?
The strength and integrity of the vitelline membrane are very important in preventing egg yolk mottling. Any factor that affects the membrane in a negative manner will result in a higher incidence of yolk mottling due to increased yolk membrane permeability.
Dietary Factors:
The anticcocidial drug, Nicarbazin, has been shown to cause yolk mottling when fed at a concentration of 0.005% or greater in the diet. The degree of mottling is not the same in all eggs, and not all hens respond the same way to Nicarbazin. A direct relationship exists, however, between the duration of feeding Nicarbazin, the level of Nicarbazin in the diet, and the incidence of mottled eggs. Worming drugs, such as Piperazine and dibutyltin dialaurate, have also been reported to cause yolk mottling.
Cottonseed meal is an excellent source of protein in laying hen diets even though it is somewhat deficient in the essential amino acid, lysine. However, if the pigment gossypol is present in cottonseed meal in high enough concentrations, the possibility of mottling will increase. When gossypol is present in the diet at a concentration of less than 0.005%, the addition of iron sulfate at a 4:1 ratio of iron salt to gossypol has been reported to prevent mottling. However, when the gossypol concentration is above 0.005%, iron sulfate supplementation does not seem to prevent mottling.
Some grain sorghums, known as bird resistant sorghums, contain high levels of tannin. It has been reported that feeding laying hens diets that contain 1 or 2% tannins will increase the incidence of yolk mottling. The mottling will desappear when the high-tannin grain sorghum is removed from the diet.
A calcium deficient diet, when fed to laying hens, has resulted in a very high incidence of mottled yolks within 12 days. It is not likely that this cause of mottling will be of concern to the egg industry because ordinarily laying hens are provided about 3.5% calcium in the diet.
It is not often that the vitelline membrane can be strengthened by the addition of something to the diet. In one instance, however, it has been reported that the strength of the vitelline membrane was increased when a variety of wheat, ‘Florida 301’, was used as a feed ingredient in the diet of laying hens. No reason was given for the improvement in the strength of the membrane in the presence of wheat.
Storage of Eggs and Age of Hen:
Storage time and temperature will affect the degree of egg yolk mottling. Storing eggs at room temperature increases the incidence of mottling. During storage, the vitelline membrane becomes weaker and eventually disintegrates. This is especielly true at high storage temperatures. With storage, water enters the yolk and causes mottling. With prolonged storage, albumen proteins also enter the yolk and contribute to the severity of mottling.
The percentage of mottled eggs has been related to the age of the laying hen. Younger hens have been reported to produce a higher number of mottled eggs. After the hens have been in egg production for 11 weeks or longer, the incidence of mottled eggs begins to decline.
Yolk breakage during egg frying is greater for eggs from older hens as well as from eggs that have been stored for more that 2 weeks, as compared to freshly laid eggs. No research has been conducted that indicates that the degree of yolk mottling is related to the breakage of the yolk during frying.
Egg Candling
External appearance is not an accurate indication of overall egg quality. It is customary, therefore, to make use of a practice known as candling in order to determine interior egg quality. Candling has the advantage of being nondestructive and rapid. It has also been automated.
Accurate candling is best done in a darkened room with a means of passing light through each egg. Candling equipment may range from a simple homemade unit to a mechanical device which is part of a mechanized washing, grading, sizing, and packing unit. Regardless of the type of equipment used, each egg must be examined.
Weak shells can be easily detected by candling. A leaker is a cracked egg in which the eggshell membrane is ruptured, allowing egg white to leak out. These eggs cannot be marketed.
When candling eggs by hand, the egg is held firmly between the thumb and index finger with the small end of the egg resting against the middle finger. Place the large end of the egg close to the candling aperture. The long axis of the egg should be at about a 45° angle to the candling aperture. The thumb and finger should be on opposite sides of the shell to prevent obstructing the view of the egg’s contents. Quickly turn your hand and wrist in a arc of about 180° to set the contents of the egg in motion. Stop the hand and wrist motion at the end of the arc. Observe the egg’s contents as they rotate inside the shell membrane.
When the egg is fresh, the yolk cannot be seen except as a faint shadow, because it remains close to the center of the egg. As the egg quality decreases, the yolk moves more freely and casts a darker shadow because it floats closer to the shell. But much of this difference is due to changes in the albumen, rather than to changes in the yolk. The thinner the albumen, or the weaker the chalazae, the closer the yolk will be to the shell when the egg is twirled, due to centrifugal force. The yolk shadow is more distinctly projected onto the shell when it is close to the shell than when it is closer to the center, thus it appears darker. A darker shadow can also occur when eggs contain enlarged yolks or when the vitelline membrane is weak.
The air cell is usually at the large end of the egg and can be plainly seen when an egg is candled. An air cell that moves freely to any part of the egg is the result of a broken inner shell membrane. A free air cell may also occur when the inner and outer shell membranes do not properly attach to each other, allowing the air cell to move freely between them.
Eggs can be graded on the basis of air cell depth. The depth of the air cell is the distance from its top to its bottom when the egg is held with the air cell up. In a fresh egg, the air cell is small, not more than 1/8-inch deep. As the egg ages, evaporation takes place and the water lost from the egg is replaced with air so that the air cell becomes larger and the egg is downgraded.
Measuring air cell depth.
Blood spots can be detected upon candling as a dark, red-colored spot in the egg. Blood or meat spots that are in the albumen appear to move more rapidly on candling than the chalazae, which may be mistaken for meat spots. Blood spots are most easily detected if the eggs are stored for at least 24 hours prior to candling. They will appear as rather distinct spots that move rapidly past the light. Small blood spots can easily be removed after the egg is opened so that the egg may be used, but if they aggregate more than 1/8 of an inch in diameter, such eggs cannot be marketed for human consumption.
Egg Sizes
In the United States, eggs are sold by size. The weight for each size classification is based on weight per dozen rather than weight per egg. The greatest consumer demand is for Large and Extra Large eggs. This is due, in part, to confusion between egg size and egg quality and to a lack of understanding of egg quality grades. Some people believe bigger is better. As a result, on a cost per pound of egg basis, Medium and Small eggs may be a better food buy. It is important, however, to take into account the fact that there is more inedible shell per unit weight with smaller eggs.
High shed temperature during summer season has a severe impact on poultry Performance. Production efficiency can be affected long before the temperature reaches to a level where survival becomes a concern.
Heat stress begins when ambient temperature reaches 32-350c and is readily apparent above 35-370c. At this point there may be slight reduction in the feed intake, as the temperature climbs beyond 370c the feed intake further reduces. As a result there is reduction in growth rate, egg size, egg production and shell quality also deteriorates. As the shed temperature continue to climb and reaches above 400 c, survival becomes a big concern
What is heat stroke?
Heat stroke is defined as a temperature of greater than 42 °C due to environmental heat exposure with lack of thermoregulation. This is distinct from a fever, where there is a physiological increase in the temperature set point of the body.
The bird has to loose (dissipate) heat from its body to reduce stress. So there are two methods by which bird looses its body heat.
1.Sensible heat loss: – The phenomena behind this loss are radiation, conduction and convection. This is because the heat radiations have a tendency to flow from higher temp to lower temp. So as the shed temperature in winter is lesser than the body temperature of the bird, the bird looses(dissipate) heat radiation in the surroundings.To compensate that heat loss, the feed intake of the bird increases.
Radiation -Heat losses are proportional to the temperature difference between the body and the surroundings. Thus, poorly insulated roofs increase house temperature and make heat stress worse in hot weather.
Convection – Heat loss will occur from the natural rise of warm air from around a hot body. It can be assisted by providing moving air but only if the air moves fast enough to break down the boundary layer of still air which surrounds the body.
Conduction – Conduction is relatively unimportant but heat will flow by direct surface to surface transfer.
2. Latent heat loss: – Latent heat is conversion of liquid form in to gaseous form. This type of heat loss comes to play when the climate temp. is very high as the shed temp keeps on increasing the body heat loss start shifting from sensible heat loss to latent heat loss. At this point of time bird starts panting and losses water from the epithelial layer of respiratory track. The body water directly converted in to vapors and this is how the bird dissipates its body heat through panting.
Panting & Physiological effects of panting.
Heat losses are very important at high temperatures. Poultry birds do not sweat, but they depend on panting to reduce the body temperature, and this is only effective if the humidity is not too high. Hot humid conditions are therefore much more stressful than hot dry conditions.
As explained earlier panting removes heat by evaporation of water from the body. As the bird starts panting vigorously, birds expels too much co2 from the body leading to respiratory alkalosis (because co2 is acidic in nature so higher loss renders to body fluids to alkaline). To counter this physiological changes in the body kidney starts flushing out electrolyte from the body. Potassium, sodium and chloride ions have a tendency to deplete at a very fast rate so it becomes very necessary to restore the electrolyte deficiency in the body. Sodium bi carbonate (meetha soda), ammonium chloride (naushadar) & potassium chloride can be given to meet the requirement (500 gms of per tonne can be given). Additional electrolytes through drinking water in the cool hours of the morning can be supplement through drinking water during extremely hot climate, particularly in younger birds.
Suggested alteration in feed formulation.
Nutritional changes in the feed along with change in management practices can minimize the heat stress losses in summers.
1. Energy: – Energy intake is one of the most important factors during summer season. Because of higher climate temperature, bird needs lesser energy by 30 kcal per day but on the same time bird wants energy to dissipate body heat so net energy requirement is almost same. But as the shed temperature keeps on increasing the fed intake goes down.With each one-degree Celsius rise in temp, the feed intake fall by almost 2% and at 39 to 40 degree Celsius it falls by 5%, so this is the time farmer can add some oil in feed to increase feed density. As the oil have lesser heat increment & also feedstuff passes slowly through gut, so more nutrients can be absorbed. Oil also increases the palatability of feeds that can lead to increase in feed intake to some extent.( dose: 0.5 to 1% can be added ).
2. Proteins: – Giving a high level of protein at a very high temperature can lead to heat prostration because heat increment of proteins is much more than carbohydrates and fats. So bird has to dissipate more body heat, which can lead to heat stoke. Maintaining ideal levels of essential amino acids (lysine & methonine) rather than increasing protein level is a much better option though.
3. Calcium, Phosphorous: – High level of calcium in feed also reduce feed intake so optimum level of calcium is required. However top dressing of marble chips or shell grit during afternoon can be done to meet calcium requirement. The phosphorous levels in feed is also very important.Excessive level inhibits the release of bone calcium & the formation of calcium bicarbonate in shell gland thereby reducing the shell quality.
4. Vitamins: – Additional supplementation of ascorbic acids (vitamin c), vitamin A, E, d3 & thiamine can improve bird’s performance during high shed temperatures. However, vitamins have a tendency to loose their activity at high shed conditions . Rancid fats, moisture, trace minerals & choline speeds up the devaluation of vitamins, so should be added separately or coated vitamins should be used along with proper storage. Vitamin C helps to control the body temperature & Plasma corticosterone concentration hence decreases stress level of birds. It also improves shell quality due to role of formation shell organic matrix. It also protects immune system. Additional supplementation of 200 – 600 Gms per kg diet is required during hot climate.
• Vitamin A: – absorption at high temp. goes down so three fold vitamin supplementation can be given.
• Vitamin E: – It protects cell membranes & boost immune response so additional dietary supplementation is required.
• Vitamin D3:- Heat stress interferes with conversion of vitamin D3 to metabolic active form which in turn is responsible for production of calcium binding proteins & also essential for calcium & phosphorous homeostasis’s
Techniques to reduce losses during hot climates
1. Water dropping system on side curtains can be installed to reduce the temperature of hot air across the shed. Once the air temperature goes down, birds will dissipate more heat from the body & chances of heat prostration will reduce.
2. Fans along with the foggers can be installed to increase the airflow inside sheds particularly in hot & humid climates. Fans should also be kept switched on during night hours so that bird loose extra body heat & get ready for the next day challenge.
3. A layer of Thatch or Zinc paint can be provided on the roof to avoid heating of roof.
4. Fresh & cool water should be provided particularly during hot hours of daytime.
5. Feeding during hot hours should be avoided because that will lead to production of heat in the body hence heat prostration will occur. So feeding during morning & evening time is suggested.
6. Grass can be cultivated in between the sheds to reduce reflection of radiations.
Advice for the upcoming Farmers
As the land price are very high these days particularly, people trying to have a maximum laying capacity in a given area compromising with the comfort level of the birds.
As a new farms with four row sheds, six to seven birds per cage are coming, the comfort level of the bird is compromised in terms of lesser feed space and more number of birds per unit area. Sheds with 4-5 birds per cage are much better in this regard.
The height of the sheds particularly in four row sheds should not be less than 12feet. Also the gap between the two rows should not be less than 4.5 ft to 5 ft. The gap in-between the sheds should not be less than 55 to 60 ft.
In these types of sheds bird remain much comfortable because of following reasons.
1. Lesser number of birds per unit area will have low temperature of the shed.
2. Effect of heat radiation generated by heated building sheds during hot climate will be much lesser. Suspactibilty to diseases also decreases.
The above mentioned facts are general in nature, but every farmer should consult the consultants for better results.
MANURE HANDLING
Solid contents in poultry manure
There are different types of equipments and storage methods used for manure handling depending upon the solid contents which is classified as solid, semi-solid or liquid.
• Solid – the manure solid content is greater than 20%. Broiler manure normally containsapprox. 20-25% moisture compared with liquid manures from layers which is 70%. The use of bedding material further contributes to the solids of the manure. To produce solid manure, the liquid must be drained off and the manure dried or bedding added. Then the solid manure can be stacked.
• Semi – solids – contains 5% to 20% solids ( called as slurry)
• Liquid – contains less than 5% solids.
Most poultry operations have different housing and feeding facility, Houses for layer, broiler
Production may vary greatly in size, appearance and arrangement of facilities. There are two
Main types of confined poultry facilities: cage houses and floor houses. Varieties of manure handling systems for these facilities are described below:
(1) Cage House, Deep Pit Systems: The deep pit offers operational advantages over other systems. For example, a separate manure storage facility is not required. In this system, manure is allowed to drop into a 5 to 10 feet deep pit under the cages where the droppings undergo a natural composting drying process. This causes a biological degradation of the wastes and reduces the weight and volume of the manure. Manure is usually removed from the storage twice each year. The success of the pit depends on the extent to which excess water can be excluded. If the manure is wet, the composting process will not occur, resulting in odours, fly problems and the need for frequent cleanouts.
If properly operated, a deep pit may not require cleaning for one to three years depending on the depth of the pit. This is an easy system to manage and requires only a front-end loader and a conventional manure spreader to clean out the pit. The deep pit should be constructed of concrete and be completely sealed to prevent groundwater seepage into the pit and escape of contaminants into the environment. In cases where the water table is very high, construction of the deep pit cage house completely aboveground is recommended.
(2) Cage House, Shallow Pit Systems: This system uses a concrete pit 15 cm to 20 cm (6 to 8 inches) deep to collect the droppings from overhead cages. The manure is allowed to collect for a short time, preferably not more than one week, then it can be scraped into a holding facility with a dragline or tractor mounted scraper. In cases where cleaning on a weekly basis is not practical, the droppings may be allowed to “cone-up” under the cages. In this case, additional air circulation is recommended to dry the manure and reduce odours. Also, the droppings should be covered periodically with sawdust or shavings if the manure storage period is Greater than one week.
(3) Cage House, Liquid Systems: Shallow pit systems can be adapted for liquid Manure handling. In this case, manure is flushed frequently into a suitable liquid Manure holding tank outside the poultry building.
(4) Floor Houses, Litter System: Broilers are often raised on litter for at least part of their lives. Breeders and pullets are raised on litter in many cases. Any clean, absorbent material can be used for litter such as wood shavings, shredded paper products or sawdust if available. The litter should be dry and should not produce excessive amounts of dust. The floor should be covered with fresh litter material prior to the housing of each new flock of birds at a recommended depth
of 4 to 8 cm (1.5 to 3 inches). The litter removed from the building must be stored
in a suitable storage structure.
Manure from most types of poultry operations is handled and stored as a solid, mostly on the ground. Chicken broilers and broiler breeder flocks are raised in barns which utilize straw or wood shavings for bedding. The manure and bedding accumulates in the barn until it is periodically removed when the flock is replaced. Front end loaders are normally used to remove the manure from the barn and transfer it to the storage area. Regular cleaning of the barn is also important to a successful fly control program. Other fly control measures include removing wet feed during fly breeding season, disposing of dead birds and keeping manure storing areas dark. You can also store manure in enclosed structures, protect ventilation inlets with screens and regularly spray with approved insecticides.
Caged layer chicken and a limited number of breeder barns utilize manure collection and transfer systems which do not involve the use of any bedding material. The manure is in a liquid or semi-solid form and a variety of collection, transfer and storage systems are used. For example, some layer farms use conveyors to move the manure daily to an area in the barn where it is eventually moved to the storage.
The components of the various systems for solid, semi-solid and liquid poultry manure are summarized in Table 3.
TABLE 3
Manure Handling Systems for Various Types of Wastes
Operation Solids Semi solids / liquids
Collection Front end loaders Slatted floors
Transfers Manure wagons
Open tank
Dump trucks
Earth moving equipments
Conveyors
Pumps Pumps
Augers
Vacuum tank wagons
Pipeline
Gravity
Continuous flow gutters
Large diameter pipes
Storage Stockpile
Bunk silo In-building
Below ground
Above ground
Treatment Aerobic
Anaerobic
Utilize/disposal Land application
Energy production
Bedding
Land application
Irrigation
Energy production
POULTRY HOUSING MANAGEMENT FOR ODOUR CONTROL
Very little odour is given off by fresh manure. Once the manure starts to decompose, odour
Production begins. Inside a poultry building, even small deposits of manure are a likely source of
odour. Solid manure tends to form fewer odours than liquid manure. By keeping conditions dry, the production of odour is reduced. Good housekeeping is the best management method. While the control of odours within the barn may require additional time or expense, it is beneficial for the welfare of the poultry and the people working within the barn. Frequently, the conditions that contribute to odours also reduce productivity and can make the poultry more susceptible to disease. The following guidelines for poultry housing management are recommended:
! Collect and transfer manure from the barn to storage on a daily basis or every batch (usually every 6 to 7 weeks for broiler operations – layer operations vary) to reduce the production of odours from the building;
! Maintain watering systems to prevent water from being added needlessly to manure and bedding;
! Thoroughly clean and disinfect buildings between successive groups of poultry;
! Do not surpass recommended bird densities in poultry buildings; and
! Remove dust, clean ventilation fans and shafts. Keep dust levels low since odours are absorbed and carried in the air on dust particles.
Ventilation of farm buildings, in addition to controlling the temperature and humidity, also controls the production and build-up of poisonous and odorous gases. The following guidelines should be observed:
! Maintain maximum air flow through poultry buildings. This will assist to keep Conditions as dry as possible and will promote aerobic conditions so that fewer odours are produced. It is also effective in diluting odorous gases as they are released to the outside environment;
! Maintain and repair ventilation fans and ensure they have the appropriate capacity for the number of birds being housed in the building; and
! Assess local conditions such as the prevailing wind direction and velocity when considering poultry building ventilation.
The position, design and height of exhaust outlets affects the dilution of odourous gases outside ofpoultry buildings. In general, higher outlets provide greater dilution of exhaust gases. Options for ventilation design may be discussed with experts in the field. Exhaust gases from poultry buildings may be treated for odour control as part of the ventilation process. Treatment requires additional expenditure, but may be warranted in certain circumstances. For these methods to be effective they must be designed and installed correctly. Qualified professionals should be consulted.
PLANNING A MANURE STORAGE
A storage facility is a permanent structure or location designed and operated to contain manure in an environmentally sound manner for the period of time required to allow the manure to be used as an organic fertilizer. The design of the storage will depend upon:
! The location of the storage;
! The storage capacity required for the poultry operation;
! The characteristics of the manure (such as the amount of solids); and
! The methods of filling and emptying.
Although some design considerations are discussed, producers are advised to contact an agricultural engineer for complete design information. Manure storage structures must also provide the following:
! Flexibility for timing manure spreading;
! Sufficiently impervious to prevent leakage; and
! An appropriate level of odour control.
Location
Groundwater and soil conditions must be evaluated to ensure that the site is suitable for the type of storage planned. For example, where the groundwater levels are near the bottom of the storage, do not use an earthen storage without a suitable liner
The site for the storage must provide the following:
! The storage must be located close enough to the barns to allow for convenient filling and still permit expansion of the facilities;
! It must be accessible by an all-weather road for field spreading equipment;
! If possible, it should be located out of sight of the road and dwellings;
! The storage must be located to avoid collecting surface and roof run-off; and
Install a groundwater controlling drain around the manure facility to prevent the entry of groundwater into both earthen or concrete storages. For earthen structures, this drainage prevents
groundwater from entering the storage. Groundwater reduces storage capacity and weakens the
manure sealing capacity by lowering the total solids content. For concrete structures, this drainage prevents frost heaving, reduces external groundwater pressure when the storage is empty and prevents water entry.
In order to minimize any risk of pollution, all manure storages are required to meet the minimum
separation distances.
Size
Manure storage requirements for poultry farms depend on:
! Management practices and facilities;
! The type and number of animals;
! The amount of water from spillage or from washing;
! The length of storage time needed;
! The amount of precipitation and/or groundwater added to storage contents;
! The amount of dilution water added;
! The amount of evaporation;
! The amount of bedding material used; and
The storage must have some reserve capacity to allow for the accumulation of solids and for
precipitation. When the storage is ready for clean out it must have enough capacity to handle a major rainstorm without overflowing
It is important to estimate manure production rates accurately, especially for expensive covered
concrete systems. An agricultural engineer should be contacted to assist in the evaluation of these systems.
Overflow of the manure storage is a serious environmental concern and therefore is prohibited.
Livestock producers must construct sufficient storage capacity to eliminate the need for winter
manure spreading.
This will also help to minimize the extra management time, labour time and equipment use
associated with short term storage. It also provides flexibility in:
! Poor weather conditions;
! labor shortages; and
! Equipment breakdowns.
SOLID MANURE STOCKPILES
Solid manure containing larger amounts of bedding is often stored in stockpiles. These storages must:
! be constructed and managed to contain all seepage and runoff;
! be constructed to help divert away or contain runoff from surrounding areas (this has
the added benefit of minimizing manure volume);
! contain a concrete bucking wall to assist filling the bucket if emptying with a front
end loader;
! provide access for unloading and haul out equipment; and
! depending on soil conditions, be constructed with a sloping concrete slab to prevent
seepage and facilitate collecting the liquid runoff which can then be collected for removal by vacuum tanker or transferred to a separate storage.
SEMI-SOLID MANURE STORAGE
Wet manure and liquid runoff can be contained by a storage consisting of earthen dykes in
combination with a reinforced concrete wall. Seepage can also be controlled by a concrete slab,
depending on soil conditions at the site. By sloping the slab to the corner opposite the entrance ramp, excess liquids can be removed by vacuum tanker or transferred to a separate storage.
Aramp entrance provides access for the front end loader or other removal equipment. This entrance ramp must be crowned to prevent surface water from the yard entering the storage.
LIQUID MANURE STORAGE
Poultry manure is sometimes stored as a liquid by adding dilution water to facilitate pumping. Liquid poultry manure can be stored in three types of storages:
! concrete tanks below ground;
! lined earthen storages; or
! concrete or steel tanks above ground.
All barns with a proposed system of manure wash down should ideally have a water meter to monitor the volume of water used.
(a) Concrete Tanks Below Ground
The two main benefits of concrete manure storage include:
! Reduced loss of valuable nutrients
! Odours are generally not released except when the manure is agitated before the storage is emptied. Concrete tanks are more costly than earthen storages, but because they are impermeable, they are suitable for use in areas having sandy soils. In areas with a high water table level, above ground storage tanks are preferable. There are also a number of synthetic materials designed for use in earthen storages that provide impermeable barriers without the high
costs of concrete storages. These are discussed under the section on earthen storages. Concrete tanks must be designed to withstand all earth, hydrostatic and live loads. In planning the design of the storage, carefully consider the following:
! How the manure is to be agitated (please note that minimizing agitation reduces odours produced during transfer);
! There must be sufficient access ports for the pump if the tank is to be covered;
! Liquid manure tanks connected to animal buildings must have gas traps or valves between them to prevent gases from entering the building;
! Openings must be covered with grills or covers (these covers must weigh at least 20 kilograms (44 pounds) so they cannot be removed by children or displaced by animals and be of sufficient design so they can not drop through the opening-permanently secure covers with a safety chain);
! Open tanks must be surrounded with a fence (at least 1.2 metres or 4 feet high except where the tank walls extend this distance above the adjacent ground level) to prevent accidental entry into the pit;
! Agitation is more effective when large tanks are divided into a series of compartments; and
MANURE STORAGE FOR ODOUR CONTROL
Most odour causing gases are formed when manure is in storage. In practice, most manure storage is anaerobic (meaning in the absence of oxygen). The anaerobic conditions promote odour production. These gases either escape from the storage to cause immediate problems or are released later during spreading. Fewer odours are produced by solid manure handling systems than by liquid systems. An undisturbed solid manure stack is self sealing so few odours are given off until the pile is disturbed. Covered storages are an effective way to minimize odour generation. Storage covers: (1) reduce occasionalmanureagitation caused by wind and rain; (2) reduce the movement of odourous airfrom storage areas to neighbouring residences; and (3) reduce the addition of water from rain and snow thereby also reducing the total volume of manure to be spread. While in most instances the cost may preclude covering storage areas, in certain circumstances this expense may be justified. When evaluating manure storages, consider the following guidelines to reduce the potential for nuisance odours:
! Provide additional storage volume for greater flexibility in the timing of manure
application. This can reduce the likelihood of storage overflow and permit
application to coincide with the most appropriate timing and weather conditions;
! With solid and semi-solid manure management systems, separate the liquid and solid portions of manure in storage to reduce the promotion of anaerobic conditions;
! Avoid the addition of silage effluent and waste food products to the manure storage
reservoir. These combinations create strong odours; and
! Planting a buffer zone of trees around manure storage areas to reduce the movement of air over the manure surface, thereby lowering the amount of odour released. This has the added benefit of removing the storage from the sight of neighbors and improves the image of the farm by providing a pleasant, aesthetically pleasing appearance.
Treatment of manure before it enters long term storage avoids odour problems in storage and during spreading. Treatment systems must be designed to handle the manure volumes generated by the poultry operation. An improperly designed or managed treatment facility will prove unsatisfactory. Often treatment is performed in short-term storage so less expensive reservoirs can be used for the larger, long-term storage. Some treatment methods for odour control are listed in Appendix A. It is important to note these treatments are mostly used in rare cases when dealing with severe odour problems.
Dead Poultry Disposal
Dead poultry on farms can cause nuisance, odor and aesthetic problems; surface andgroundwater pollution; disease; and insect, rodent and predator problems if the birds are not disposed of daily. Proper management of dead
Birds is vital from the stand point of avoiding nuisance complaints. The disposal of dead poultry is an increasingly complex problem for all poultry men. Recent it becomes responsibility of each producer to adopt and maintain an environmentally sound method of dead bird disposal. The disposal methods for disposal are: composting, incineration. Disposal pits or ground disposal methods is a routine practice in India, except in the case of a massive die-off. The various disposal alternatives each require appropriate management on a daily basis. Producers should evaluate alternatives and implement the most feasible method. Advice and assistance obtained from cooperating agencies can be of significant value in minimizing mistakes and future problems. Composting and incineration are currently recognized as the most feasible authorized options for producers.
Composting
There has been an increased interest in composting as a means of dead bird disposal in recent years . Composting requires the use of primary and secondary compost bins and the use of hay, litter and water to decompose carcasses. Strict discipline on the part of employees and managers is required to assure that the composting process is properly maintained. Special heavy equipment to turn and move the composting materials is essential to ensure satisfactory decomposition of carcasses. The bulky composted material then must be disposed of in an acceptable manner. Composted carcasses cannot be spread on pastureland because of the potential for botulism poisoning in grazing animals. Instead, the material may be opportunity for direct contact with the compost. Considerations of composting include:
• • Construction of proper facilities;
• • Heavy-equipment needs, including use of a front-end loader;
• • Daily management, monitoring and turning requirements of compost;
• • Ensuring no contact with livestock if compost is applied to land;
• • Availability of necessary inputs of litter, straw and water.
Incineration
Incineration can be a convenient and environmentally safe method to dispose of dead birds. However, expensive,
Smokeless incinerators are required. They must be properly operated, maintained and replaced as needed. Nuisance
complaints about smoke and odor caused by poor maintenance and improper operation of incinerators are common.
Incinerators must be operated properly to maximize equipment life and to minimize problems with emissions. Loading and operation should follow manufacturer recommendations. Ashes should be removed frequently to maximize combustion and prevent damage to equipment. Considerations include:
• • Equipment emissions that meet air quality standards;
• • Availability of cost-share funds;
• • Expense of fuel in relation to increased operating costs;
• • Maximum burn rate of 200 pounds per hour. It is advisable and less expensive to limit the burn rate to
100 pounds per hour.
Ventilation is essential in poultry operations. Important environmental challengesinclude weather extremes and rapidly changing conditions. Colder months can mean difficulty in providing adequate ventilation while trying to maintain a comfortable temperature within the shed. Hot weather can mean difficulty in providing enough ventilation for the heat to escape the house. Whether the temperature is hot or cold, it is important to supply the birds with adequate ventilation to bring in fresh air andexhaust carbon dioxide.
The primary purpose of having a ventilation system is to provide air exchange.Ventilation is needed to remove excess heat. Dust particles and moisture producedduring the normal activities such as metabolism, respiration and evaporation as well asharmful gases and disease causing organisms that may be present. A ventilation system should provide fresh, oxygen rich air for birds which promotes optimal production.
Second a good ventilation system should distribute air uniformly throughout the building without creating any “Dead Air Zones”
Third, the ventilation system should control airspeeds within the room. During thecold weather, entering air may need to have adequate speed to accomplish proper mixing and distribution, but the air speed must be controlled so as to not create drafts onbirds. During hot weather, air movement minimizes temperature increase within bird space. While accomplishing these essential functions, ventilation system also need to be easy to operate and maintain.
During the cold weather the producer often close up their sheds in an attempt to maintain higher inside temperature, which usually result in small temperature rise. Improper ventilation will result in increased humidity and possibly condensation andbuild up of carbon dioxide, ammonia and odour. Viruses and other respiratory pathogens that may be present will find these conditions well suited for their growth and ready transmission to bring birds sharing a common airspace.
Moisture accumulation occurs as a result of a lack of fresh air to remove moisture produced by birds. Humid air is more prone to condense on cold surfaces, which can lead to wet litter and equipment failures. Minimize condensation by keeping the relative humidity of the poultry house at 70% or lower and by insulating areas such as the ceiling. A build up of carbon dioxide and ammonia will result in poor overall flock health and potential death. Pathogen build up often is overlooked because it is difficult to assess them directly. However this probably is the greatest risk for producers because by the time infection thresholds are exceeded and disease symptoms are noticed, the entire flock will be infected.
Natural Ventilation
The best way to prevent adverse effects of inadequate ventilation is to keep steps to ensure the birds always are provided with fresh air. The simplest way to provide fresh air is to use the natural ventilation systems that already may be built into the chicken house.Natural ventilation takes advantage of basic principles of warm, humid air wanting to rise and wind producing pressures on building surfaces. Natural ventilation useswindows, panels and low hanging doors in broilers and open sheds in layers, to allow fresh air, all of which are most effective when located on all four corners of the housing facility.
Determinations for how far to open windows and doors can be made on the basis of air temperature, prevailing wind direction, age of birds, amount of moisture and the level of gaseous build up within the house. It is important to place and orient the chicken house properly to take advantage of prevailing winds. Warm-weather openings need to be exposed to prevailing winds, which in Nebraska generally means the ridge should run east and west. The house should be situated away from any windbreaks, buildings or other obstacles desired to south or south east. In addition to windows and doors, roof ventilators can be used but require more practice and monitoring to be effective. When placing openings, consider that birds, especially chicks, do not tolerate direct drafts of cool air.
Natural ventilation usually is the cheapest and simplest method that can be used to provide birds with the fresh air they need. Modern poultry houses with natural ventilation often include control systems that automatically adjust the size of openings using fully adjustable curtains, panels, baffles, etc. This increases the initial cost, but may be worthwhile for the producer who finds monitoring and controlling the environment manually an overlay daunting task and can justify the investment with improved health and performance.
As poultry is becoming dense day by day it is advisable to leave a minimum height of 8 feet for the litter collection and 12 feet above that till the roof in the layers. The distance between the two sheds should be 3 times the height of the shed. More the ventilation, lesser the disease, healthier the bird and more the productions.
Mechanical Ventilation
Forced ventilation is an alternative to natural ventilation. Also referred to as mechanical ventilation, it uses a combination of electric fans, air inlets and controls (thermostats, timers, etc.) to regulate temperature and humidity. The primary advantage of forced ventilation is that the producer has reasonably direct control over the rate of airflow delivered. Moderating indoor temperature swings often is a major goal of producers who select these systems. Having a controlled system eliminates much of the guesswork, as one can atleast in theory simply set the controls to the desired temperature and let the machines do the rest of the work. This type of system has its disadvantages, though, as cost can be a prohibitive factor. Mechanical ventilation systems generally require greater initial investment in equipment, require regular maintenance to perform properly and have a higher cost of operations in terms of energy consumption. While installing these systems one should always in keep in mind the power supply situation where the farm is located. One should have a strong power backup in case of power failure.
Ventilation systems usually are designed for a specific house, based on the number and size of birds housed in the facility, as well as the volume in cubic feed of air in the house. Generally, a system should provide one air exchange per minute or more during the hot weather. The system also needs to be adjustable to maintain an airflow rate as low as 1 to 5 air exchanges per hour during the cold weather. To calculate the volume of air that needs to be removed t o produce one air exchange, use the following formula : length * Width * Height ( average height ) of the airspace. To obtain the airflow rate ( fan capacity in cubic feet per minute(cfm) ) neede for given indoor conditions, multiply the air exchange volume( cubic feet) by number of air exchanges recommended per minute for those conditions. The result can be used to determine the number and capacity of fans that need to be operating, as well as the total inlet area needed.
As an example, consider a broiler a house that is 30 feet wide, 200 ft long, and 8 ft tall at the sidewalls, with a pitched roof and no ceiling. Assuming the peak is about 12 ft tall, air exchange volume is :
1 air exchange volume = 30*200*{(8+12)/2} = 60000 cubic ft.
Now in hot weather , ventilation rate of air exchange needed is 1 per minute, the total fan capacity needed is (60000 cubic ft/air exchange)*(1 air exchange/minute) = 60000 CFM.
Now if a fan is having a cfm of 10000 then you will be requiring 60000/10000=6 fans for this shed for one air exchange.
Both the fan capacity and inlet opening would need to be adjusted to maintain proper air exchange, distribution and air speed at bird level.
Effective ventilating poultry facilities cannot be stressed enough, whether using a natural or mechanical type of ventilation systems. A simple method to test the adequacy of a ventilation system is to use your nose and eyes. If you smell strong ammonia or observe thick cobwebs the ventilation system is adequate. Poor ventilation can result in poor respiratory health indicated by coughing and sneezing birds, and a higher rate of Ascites syndrome related deaths in heavy meat birds. Providing fresh air with an adequate ventilation system and removing excess heat and moisture, gases and other air contaminants from your chicken house will help produce healthier and more productive chickens.
Introduction
Water is a required nutrient that is easily overlooked until it is absent. Water represents between 55% and 75% of the weight of a chicken and 65% of the egg. About 70% is inside the cells and 30% is in fluid surrounding the cells and in blood. As fat increases in the carcass with age, the percentage of total body water decreases. Water acts as a solvent for other inorganic and organic nutrients, is essential in metabolism and is required for movement of feed through the digestive system. Water is able to store a large amount of heat in liquid form and then lose heat upon evaporation. This makes it extremely important in temperature regulation. Water is also a useful medium for flock medication. Water quality must consider temperature, dissolved minerals, organic material, and microbial contamination. The poultry farm must be managed to provide clean and cool water to all birds at all times.
Water Quality
Many factors can affect water quality. Of importance are bacteria, especially coliforms(recomended less than 50mpm), too high or too low pH level(recomended between 6.8 and7.2), extreme hardness, high magnesium, high nitrates and nitrites, high sodium, chloride and other minerals. Water should be checked periodically for bacteria and minerals. Water should be tested during periods of both low and high rainfall. Water that is safe for human consumption is generally considered suitable for poultry. Chickens may satisfy a significant amount of nutrient requirement throught drinking water: calcium (7-28%), magnesium (up to 9%), sodium (20-40%), sulfur (20-45%). More than this is considered excess and may result in poor performance.
Saline water has been found to have a definite negative effect on poultry performance. Eggshell quality in layers is rapidly reduced being noticeable within four to six weeks in young pullets and within a few days in older hens . The adverse effects in hens do not appear to be reversible. Egg defects from hens exposed to saline water do not improve after being returned to normal water. Thus prevention of damage in important.
Water Consumption
Under normal conditions, it is generally assumed that birds will drink around twice as much water by weight as the amount of feed they consume. Water intake increases with age but decreases as a percent of body weight. Water intake will also vary considerably depending on the air and water temperature. Water consumption increases by approximately 7% for each 1ºC above 21ºC. This will be greater if the water is cooler than the air and less if the water is warmer than the air. Excess minerals in feed or water above the nutritional requirement will cause increased water consumption and may result in wet manure. Feeds containing higher than anticipated minerals such as sodium chloride from fishmeal, potassium and ash from molasses, or magnesium from calcium or phosphate sources all increase water consumption.
It should also be realized that water consumption is not constant throughout the day. This is highly pronounced in layers. Peak water consumption occurs immediately following egg laying and then a second peak occurs just prior to the end of a normal light cycle. These two peaks acount for around 75% of the total water consumed. This means that highest water consumption will occur around 10-11 AM and 6-8 PM within a 6 AM to 8 PM light cycle.
Water Supply
Well casings should be intact and sealed tightly to prevent contamination from runoff and surface water. Overhead storage tanks of concrete or galvanized steel should be sized and placed to provide the required amount of water with enough pressure to reach the birds in all houses. Pressure reducers and filters are important for automatic drinkers. Water pipes should be made ofpolypropylene, polyethythene or galvanized steel. Supply pipes should be buried under the soil to prevent heat gain. Pipes and tanks that are exposed to the sun should be insulated and shaded to prevent heat gain so that water does not exceed 25ºC. It is very important to provide water to the birds that is cooler than the air temperature during extremely warm and humid weather(above 32ºC and 40% RH).
Drinkers
Most modern broiler and layer installations are now using nipple or cup drinkers. These have the advantage of reducing disease spread, provide cleaner water, have less wastage and reduce the labour required for daily cleaning. Feed efficiency is typically improved as well. Nipple watering systems must be checked often to replace leaking nipples. Water pressure and filters must also be monitored. Too high a pressure will reduce the young chicks ability to get water and too low a pressure will cause leakage. The nipples can also be used starting from the brooding period, eliminating the need for small plastic fount drinkers. In this case it is helpful to train several birds in each group to use the nipple so that others will follow. Nipples should be made ofshiny stainless steel to attract birds. The height of the nipple is important. The birds should lift their head to reach the nipple and the nipple should be higher than the bird’s back to prevent bumping and leaking. Cup drinkers are more hygienic than trough or bell drinkers but not as clean as nipples.
Brooding and Dehydration
Chicks dehydrated in the incubation and hatching system will often show signs of albumin sticking to their body. Chicks dehydrated during transportation will appear small, fluffed out and keep their eyes closed. The shanks (legs) of the chicks will appear withered and may be wrinkled and pale.
Upon arrival at the farm, everything should be done to rehydrate chicks as soon as possible. Early morning delivery is best.Access to water but not feed for the first 5 to 6 hours improves rehydration. A 5% addition of glucose (dextrose) to this first water is also helpful. Higher percentages of glucose should be avoided to prevent dehydration especially when other additives are added to water. Sucrose or table sugar is not as digestible as glucose and therefore not as good.
Maintaining body water status is extremely important in day old chicks. While people often blame early mortality or “starve outs” on feed particle size, pellet hardness, nutrition or some exotic disease, the condition is often caused by dehydration. With proper attention paid to conserving body water, it should be possible to reduce mortality and culls by at least 2% to 3%.
Transportation during chick delivery is a major factor in dehydration. Several thousand day-old chicks generate a great deal of heat. When confined to a small area inside of a delivery truck, there must be an adequate way to remove this heat evenly without causing dehydration, heat stress or chilling. Refrigeration and ventilation systems should be adequate and preferably operated by an auxiliary engine. Dehydration will occur when the air temperature around the birds exceeds the body temperature of 39 deg C. This is especially true when the outside relative humidity is below 70% and the delivery is delayed. Chicks that lose more than 25% of their hatching body weight have little chance of surviving in a competitive commercial environment.
Sanitation in the Watering System
Over time, scale, rust, algae and dirt can collect in water lines if proper maintenance does not take place. Buildup of such material is an ideal place for microorganisms to become established. Then, every time the bird drinks water it is exposed tomicrobial load and immune challenge. Not only does a high microbial load directly affect bird performance, but it also reduces the effectiveness of medication and vaccination. Bacteria will also clog valves and nipples and cause drinkers to drip and overflow.
Sanitizers and cleaners should be used routinely to reduce microbial population and flush out scale buildup. Between flocks,water lines should be flushed with high pressure water then filled with a cleaning solution and allowed to sit overnight before flushing again. Chemicals such as citric acid and vinegar can be used to remove scale. Ammonium hydroxide, quaternary ammonium salts, sodium hypochlorite, powdered dry chlorine sources, iodine solutions and hydrogen peroxide can be used to sanitize the system. Chemicals should be used separately to prevent a chemical reaction. All chemicals should be handled with gloves and goggles to protect eyes and hands. Excessive use of chlorine at high concentration is corrosive to stainless steel.
Orthophosphates have been used with some success to prevent scale buildup in watering systems for poultry. Water softening is also helpful but it should be noted that this process replaces calcium and magnesium ions with sodium. Although sodium is an essential nutrient, its requirement is usually met in the diet as most formulations contain about 0.35% salt. Higher levels of sodium intake will result in excessive drinking and cause wet manure and reduce eggshell quality. A doubling of the required sodium intake will begin to result in mortality.
Water samples should be collected from drinkers and then sent to a laboratory to assay microbial load and mineral content. Clean, sterile and dry plastic bottles should be used for sample collection.
Medication and Vaccination
In pressurized water systems, proportioners are a convenient way to dose the birds with drugs, antibiotics, vaccines and electrolytes packs for hot weather. Care must be taken when using these proportioning devices to calculate the proper dose. Read the directions on the equipment. Water consumption must be known. It is therefore advisable to have a water meter for each barn. Water consumption can be measured the day before dosing and the proper dose calculated. All other additives such asacidifiers, cleaners and especially chlorine and other sanitizers should be thoroughly flushed from the lines before antibiotics, vitamins and vaccines are used. Sometimes chlorine is present in city supplied water and cannot be removed. In this case, it is advisable to use 2.5 grams of powdered milk per liter of drinking water supplied at the same time as the vaccine. This will neutralize up to 4 ppm of free chlorine and prevent interference with the vaccine. Afterward, traces of the milk should be flushed out of the lines to prevent bacterial growth in the system.
Summary
Water is an important and often overlooked nutrient. Clean uncontaminated water should be available at all times for broilers and layers. Any water restriction program designed for breeders or layers should be applied with the utmost caution in the tropics. It is important that ample drinker space be available for birds. Water should not be allowed to become warmer than the air temperature in hot weather and should be preferably kept below 25º C. Automatic watering sytems using nipples and cups are the most hygeinic but require maintenance to keep the level at the proper height for the birds and to prevent leakage and overflowing. The basic rule is that if water is suitable for human consumption it is usually so for chickens.
Diseases of Commercial Poultry-Which farmer can identify
Disease is impairment from normal function of body organs or any part of body. Many factors like nutritional deficiency, injury, toxicity, stress, infectious agent, etc can cause disease. The outbreak of disease and its severity depends on factors like numbers and type of virulent agent, its route of entry and defense status of bird, also nutritional, genetic ability, environment, etc play important role. The infectious agent can be categorized as below.
Bacterial
Avian Salmonellosis
Its caused by one or many members of Salomonella bacteria.Most harmful being S.pullorum and S.gallinarum
S.pullorum infects mainly through hatching eggs,cannibalism,egg eating,through wound and contaminated feed and water.
Chicks hatched from infected eggs are moribound,sleepy,show weekness,inappetence,shrill cry while defecating,have chalky white diarrhoea,show exhaustion,huddling,sometimes respiratory distress,retarded growth and poor feathering.Usually heavy mortality during first few weeks.
Avian pasteurellosis or Fowl cholera
Usually appears when new flock is added to present flock.Contaminant like crates,feed bags,infected pullets,also insects acts as vector.In flock transmission is by contaminated feed , water and by nasal and oral discharges.
Birds show temp.anorexia,mucous discharge from mouth,green diarrhoea,cynosis of comb and wattles,torticollis,pink or red shanks,etc.In chronic cases swelling of wattles,sinuses and tracheal rales is seen.
Infectious coryza
The disease is mainly of multi age group farms and carrier birds are main source of infection.Outbreak is fast and seen within 1-3 days.
Sinuses and nasal passage has serous to mucoid discharge,respiratory rales are seen,catarrhal conjunctivitis and subcutaneous edema of face and wattles,diarrhoea,reluctant to eat,drop in production and foul odour is common.There is low mortality but high morbidity.
Avian mycoplasmosis
Its quite common in poultry and spreads by contact,air borne,dust and dropping,contaminated equipments,etc.Spread of disease can take 1-3wks
Its characterized by tracheal rales,nasal discharge,sneezing,loss of body weight,decrease feed intake and production,foaming of eye secreations,swelling of sinuses,loss of body weight.Mortality is high in young pullets due to complication with secondary infection with e.coli and viral disease,which leads to chronic respiratory disease.
Gangrenous dermatitis or wing-rot
Its acute disease .Injury,Clostridium bacteria presence and immune suppression enhance chances of outbreak.It occurs spontaneously around 6-12 wks age.It usually starts with small pimple on skin and soon progresses to involve larger area.Birds with wing-rot have moist raw dark area where underline muscle is exposed.The breast,wing,rump,abdomen area is commonly involved.Blood tinged jelly like fluid may be found underneath skin.
Escherichia coli
This include infections like Colibacillosis,peritonitis,salphingitis,omphalitis,air saculitis,etc.
This is most common bacterial infection and the organism is normal inhabitants of gastrointestinal tract.Most important route is fecal contamination of feed,water and litter as well as dust.In commercial farms mostly seen due to stress conditions.
Mushy chick disease
When e.coli infects yolk sac there is edema and infection of yolk sac.Infected chicks die with-in 1st wk of hatch.Low brooding temp.and starvation increases omphalitis cases.
Air saculitis
Its characterized by air sac infection along with pericarditis and perihepatitis.Inhalation of infected dust and high ammonia level increases reproductive form of disease.It causes severe economic losses due to mortality and condemnation of carcass.
Pericarditis
Its sequalae to e.coli septicemia,usually associated with myocarditis and perihepatitis.
Coligranuloma
Its characterized by granuloma of liver,ceca.duodenum and mesentry but not spleen.
Viral
Newcastle disease/Raniket
Classified as velogenic,mesogenic and lentogenic depending on virulence.Mostly air borne diseases.Seen in five clinical forms.
Doyle’s form-Its acute and birds die without showing any symptoms and sign in 2-4 days,causes by velogenic strains and mortality about 90%.Greenish diarrhoea,tremers of muscles,torticollis,listlessness and paralysis of wing and legs is seen.
Beach,s form-very acute and spreads very fast.Birds show respiratory symptoms like dyspnoea,sneezing,gasping,inappetence,drop in production,paralysis seen and high mortality in immature birds.
Beaudette,s form-Acute respiratory disease of adult birds characterized by coughing but rarely gasping,feed intake and production decreases and internal quality of eggs is affected and is caused by mesogenic strains.Mortality is seen in young birds but adult birds usually won’t die.
Hitchner’s form-mild form and may go unnoticed in adults its caused by lentogenic strains and respiratory signs visible only on close observations.If complicated with bacterial infection mortality is high
Asymptomatic enteric form-not much clinic signs seen
Avian encephalomyelitis
Mainly egg borne can also spread due to direct or indirect contact.Usually chicks between 1-2 wks show dullness,ataxia,sitting on hocks,fine tremor of head and neck.Mortality is mainly due to birds not being able to eat and drink.In adults only drop in production no nervous signs.
Egg drop syndrome
Chicken though is not natural host and in commercial conditions outbreak is rare.When there is horizontal transmission, there is loss of color in pigmented eggs and then production of thin shell,soft shelled and shell-less eggs.The thin shelled eggs have paper like texture or granular roughening on one side of egg.
Avian pox
Mainly transmission of virus is by injury or broken skin.
Cutaneous form-lesion are seen mainly on wattles and comb as local epithelial hyperplasia followed by nodule formation which is wart like.These nodules became rough and grey or brown in color.Also seen on legs and feet.This is followed by scab formation and desquammation of epithelial layers.When scab falls off, a smooth scar is left.
Diphtheritic form-there is white opaque nodules on mucous membrane which enlarges and forms like a plug.Mostly seen plugging trachea.It might extend at sinuses,pharynx.larynx and esophagus.
Infectious bursal disease/Gumboro
This being highly contagious is most feared.Water,feed and dropping spread disease.Its very fast spreading.Its also self limiting.Mortality peaks on 4-5th days and receeds 7-10 days post attack.There is white diarrohoea,anorexia,pecking of vent.depression,dehydration,ruffled feathers.trembling,tucked-up appearance and heavy mortality.Usually seen 3rd-8th wk age.
Laryngotracheitis
Mechanical means like equipments and litter spreads disease,also airborne,ingestion,intraocular,etc.
There is nasal discharge,moist tracheal rales,gasping,blood stained mucus from mouth in severe cases,watery eyes,conjunctivitis,unthriftyness,reduced egg production.Mostly adults recovers from mild form of disease in 2 wks.
Avian infectious bronchitis
Chicken is the main host and disease is spread mainly by air.Spreads fast and young birds show prominent respiratory signs like gasping,sneezing,tracheal rales and nasal discharge.Chicks huddle under the brooder.Sinus swelling might be seen.Pullets show retarded growth and feed consumption.Older birds show decrease in egg production.The external and internal quality egg is affected.The egg shell is soft,misshapen or rough.Albumin is watery,yolk separates from albumin or albumin sticks to shell membrane.Serous exudates in nasal passage and sinuses is seen.
Marek’s disease and Lymphoid leucosis
They are virus induced neoplastic disease.Marek’s is transmitted by direct or indirect contact between birds,affected feather follicles,poultry house dust and carrier birds.Its takes 4 wks to show symptoms.
At start there is asymmetric paralysis and later complete paralysis of one or both legs.If wing is involved then its characterized by dropping of wing,there can be drooping of neck,paralysis and dilation of crop,if sciatic nerve is involved then sportsman posture i.e one leg stretched forward one leg backwards.In acute cases severe depression is seen.Birds are emaciated and dehydrated.When eyes are involved causes pearl like appearance of eye,opacity of iris and also swelling of feather follicles and sloughing of feathers is seen.
Lymphoid leucosis is seen usually after lay starts.Clinically not seen before 15 wks and takes 14-30wks for symptoms to develop.Incidence is max. at around sexual maturity and pale,cyanotic comb,emaciation,inappetence is seen.Abdomen is enlarged and liver enlargesand can be felt on palpation.
Chicken Anemia Virus
Its acute disease usually of young chicks and is characterized by depression,anorexia,anemia,palesness,loss of weight,hemorrhages and sudden rise in mortality.It depresses immune-system.Its can spread vertically and horizontally.Infected birds shed virus upto 5 wks.Horizontal spread is through feed and air.
Influenza
It has highly variable clinical signs and outbreak pattern.Respiratory signs are most common,depression,high to mild drop in production.In severe cases green diarrhoea,cynosis of comb and wattles,also edema of head,nasal discharge,discoloration of shank and feet seen.
Coccidiosis
Important disease as it causes great financial losses.If mild attack it causes weight loss,reduced feed intake.Severe outbreak leads to heavy mortality.Its transmitted through ingestion of sporulated oocysts.Farm labour’s shoes,hand,clothing serves source to transmit oocysts.Its rare to see disease in less than 11 day old bird.Affected birds are pale,dull.sleepy while standing,show ruffled feathers,birds tends to stand in corner,retracted head,initial dark brown later bloody droppings and emaciation.
Fungal
Aspergillosis-It produces toxin which are hemotoxic,neurotoxic and histotoxic.Infected hatcher and incubator are main source of contamination.Spores in air transmits infection.Birds show dyspnoea,gasping.polypnoea,emaciation,increase thirst and disease usually gets complicated by viral respiratory diseases.
Favus-symptoms are white spots on comb,wattles,also causes loss of feather and skin lesions.it spreads by contact.
Thrush-causes retarded growth,listlessness and reffled feathers,necrotic spots in crop mucosa,thickening of mucosa and also white raised ulcers.These lesions may extent to proventriculus
Mycotoxins-there is depressed growth,inappetence,mortality,drop in egg weight and production.It impairs immune system making birds prone secondary infections.
Parasitic
External-Fleas,lice,bugs,flies,beetles,mites,ticks
Birds infested with external parasites show scratching and preening also there will be drop in production.Area like feathers around vent,legs,wing and neck reveals parasites.
Internal-Pinworm,Roundworm,Tapeworm.All causes drop in production and loss of body weight,increase feed intake.
Other disease conditions
Egg bound-it’s a condition where egg is lodged in cloaca but is not laid.Its caused due to inflammation of oviduct or partial paralysis of oviduct muscles,also if egg is over sized.
Cage layer fatigue-its characterized by inability of birds to stand and there is marked fragility of bones.Birds recover when put on deep litter.
Bumble foot-its localized infection of foot that causes bulbous swelling of foot pad and surrounding tissues.May be in one or both foot.
Hemarrhagic syndrome-characterized by hemorrhages in muscles,internal organs and aplastic bone marrow.Ruffled feathers,huddling and sometimes diarrhoea.
Fatty liver syndrome-its characterized by fat deposits,fatty liver and drop in production.High energy ration with low energy usage and due to stress of high egg production.Birds have increased body weight and birds in good health die.
Poison and Toxin
Mainly caused by injudicious use of chemotherapeutic agents,disinfectants,insecticides,etc
Autointoxication-its because of absorption of waste metabolites or due to decomposition in GI tract.High fiber diets results in impaction of crop,chilling leads to vent pasting.
Chemotherapeutic drugs-Sulphonamides causes blood dyscariasis,kidney and liver dysfunction.Toxic level leads to ruffled feathers,paleness,depression,poor weight gain and hemorrhagic syndrome.
Nitrofurans-toxic level causes depression,hyperexcitability
Nicarbazin-decreases production,reduces egg size,mottling of yolk,reduction in shell quality and hatchability.
Monensin-drowsiness,thirst,panting,flaccid paralysis.
Disinfectants
Cresol-Toxic level causes depression,huddling,rales,gasping,wheezing,extension of head and neck.
Potassium permanganate-severe cauterization of crop wall and hemorrhages in tissues in contact.
Quaternary ammonium compound-reluctance to drink,restlessness,foamy ocular discharge,nasal discharge,facial swelling,ataxia,convulsion and death.
Drugs
Copper sulphate-depression,weakness,convulsion.
Mercury compound-incordinaion of legs,weakness followed by prostration.
Nitrates-nitrates of K and Na are toxic.They cause thirst,anorexia,vomition,diarrhoea,cyanosis of comb,wattle and skin.
Sodium bicarbonate-weakness,increased water intake,watery dropping,nephritis and gout.
Sodium chloride-inappetance,somnolence,thirst,dysponea,convulsion,nephritis,myocardial hemorrhage,ascitis,subcutaneous edema.
Calcium-diarrhoea,intense thirst,paralysis with convulsion.
Insecticides
Chlorinated hydrocarbons-production drop 20-70% in a months time at levels 0.031-0.25%(DDT contaminated feed),hatchability reduced to zero at 0.125% DDT.Two wk old chicks with 0.05% DDT there is 100% mortality.Toxicity shows loss of weight,molting,ataxia,tremors,etc.
Organophosphorus compounds-like malathion causes drowsiness,ataxia,resting on hocks,paralysis and death.Also seen are signs like mucous hanging from beak,cynosis of head,blood tinged diarrhoea,birds are never hyperexcitable.
Parathion-most toxic increases salivation,lacrimation,gasping,muscular convulsion,ataxia and death.
Rodenticides
Zinc phosphide-lethal dose is 7-15 mg/kg body wt in one hour birds show depression,ruffled feathers,diarrhoea,weekness,greenish diarrhoea,nervous signs and death.
Note-Of late commercial layer poultry farming has become very technical and professional buisness.Farmers though has experience but usually follows trial and error methods of learning or learns by losses.In poultry there is not much time in outbreak and treatment as production and environment stress is maximum.Do take help of good poultry consultant who knows and understands your birds professionally..He can guide you to minimize your losses and increase profits by decreasing cost of production of eggs.Prevention of disease is cash but treatment of disease is loan.
INTRODUCTION
Bio security in poultry farming is of extreme importance as it effects the overall physical health of the poultry and financial health of the poultry farmers. Bio security means taking steps to ensure good hygiene practices are in place so that the risk of a disease occurring or spreading is minimised. Good bio security should be practiced at all times, not just during a disease out break. Taking the right measures can help protect your birds, your business, the industry and the community.
Good biosecurity helps keep out exotic poultry diseases such as avian influenza and Newcastle disease. It also reduces the risk of zoonotic diseases such as salmonella becoming established. It limits the occurrence and spread of diseases and helps to protect your neighbours , public health and the vilages. It improves overall flock health and cuts cost of diseases treatment, reduces losses which could improve farm profitability.
Biosecurity has three major components isolation, traffic control & sanitation.Isolation refers to the confinement of the animals within a controlled environment.A fence keeps yours birds in , but it also keeps other animals out.A poultry premises should be fenced and as a matter of principle the outside traffic(human beings/vehicles) should not be allowed to enter the premises except when it is a must.In such an event the outsider entering the premises must pass through a cess pool of water containing disinfectant to guard against any outside infection.
Infectious diseases can be spread from farm to farm by:
1. Introduction of diseased birds
• Introduction of healthy birds who have recovered from disease but are now carriers
• Shoes and clothing of visitors or labourers who move from flock to flock
• Carcasses of dead birds that have not been disposed of properly
• Impure water , such as surface drainage water
• Rodents , wild animals and free flying birds
• Insects
• Contaiminated feed and feed bags
• Contaiminated delievery trucks
• Contaiminated premices through soil or old litter
IMPORTANT POINTS:-
• The space between the sheds should be kept free from the accumulation of stagnant water/weed growth which are breeding ground of bacteria.
• Spreeding of dry lime powder (CHUNNA) is a good practice to achive this objective.
• Soon after the disposal of old flock and before arrival of new flock the bird cages must be air water jetted and burnt with the gas flameto take care of any infectious material sticking on to them.
• The shed should be thoroughly cleaned, whitewashed, disinfected and fumigated.
Biosecurity checklist
Properly implemented biosecurity measures will limit the spread of disease causing organism.
When these are combined with cleaning and disinfection, vaccination and strategic treatments , many pathogens can be reduced to non-infectious levels.
Remember – different infectious agents spread by different methods , so use appropriate measures against each type
Site location and design , and density of poultry in a given geographical area are vital. When planning in newsite, there is the opportunity for very effective biosecurity to be implemented at the design stage. However biosecurity practices must concern themselves with practicalities , rather than a theoretically ideal set up.
All sites have traffic-personnel,feed,stock and equipments – but this should be kept to an absolute minimum.
Only essentials vehichles should have access to a site, and these should be disinfected on arrival
Priority should be given to biosecurity measures on breeding sites since errors here are magnified greatly at the commercial sites.
Site decontamination , turnaround times and a well audited and structured cleansing and disinfections procedures should be in place for all sites.
Effective vermin(wild animals and wild birds) control must be maintained.
Only disinfectants with independately proven broad spectrum efficacy against viral and bacterial pathogens should be used and at manufacturers stated dilutions and directions.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT IN POULTRY
The artificial light provided in the poultry shed should be of uniform intensity. It should reach properly in corners of the sheds uniformly so that al the birds should have proper assess to feed and water
EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT ON POULTRY PERFORMANCE
Light both natural as well as artificial has a very important role in poultry performance. Recommendation of artificial light may vary according to Breed of the bird. Usally 24 hrs light( artificial and natural) is recommended in most of the breeds till 4wks and then exposure to artificial light can be reduced gradually to zero artificial light after 8wks of age. Though this light schedule can be altered a bit depending upon few factors like climatic temp,type of breed, age,body weight, feed intake, availability of natural light( day length) etc.But exposure to artificial light during pre laying stage is of utmost importance. Fate of the prouction performance is heavily dependent on this stage of the bird.so what are the important points which should be considered before exposing the bird to artificial light.
1. Body Weight
This is one of the most important aspect as far as performance is concerned. Because all reproductive organs they start maturing during this stage so body weight of the bird should always be in accordance with age of the bird. Lack of proper body wt. during onset of laying can lead to laying of more no. of pullet eggs ( small size eggs)
Ideally a hen should achieve a minimum of 1250 gms of body before starting egg laying process. Failing to achieve enough body wt. during this stage can not only lead to decrease in no. of eggs laid during a laying cycle but can also lead to a higher laying mortality due to prolapse and peck outs.Such flocks have a tendency to lay eggs with weak egg shell at an early stage and show drastic fall in production in later part of the laying cycle.
2. Nutrion
A balanced feed as per phase of the bird should be provided to achieve proper body wt.
3. Feed Intake
Now feed intake heavily depends upon the climatic temp. as the climatic temp. is very high during summers so feed intake is very low so it is very difficult to achieve proper body wt. under these circumstances. Providing a proper space and crumble feed under these circumstances can help a lot. Because crumble feed is more homogenous so it helps to achieve not only a better body wt. but more importantly a much better flock uniformity. More is the uniformity in terms of the body wt. of the flock better will be prod. Performance. On the other hand climatic temp. remains on lower side during winters so feed intake tends to be on higher side leading to much better body wt. as compared to summers.But achieving a better flock uniformity is of utmost importance.
AVAILABILTY OF NATURAL LIGHT
There is a huge variation in availability in summers and winters.In winters the feed intake is on higher side and body wt. of the bird is usually optimum. Furthermore due to shorter day lengh and lack of enough day light , onset of laying is get delayed. So under these circumstances bird starts laying with a better egg mass and eventually lay much lesser no. of pullet eggs. In contrary to winters, situation is entirely different in summers as discussed earlier.
SO WHEN BIRD SHOULD BE EXPOSED TO ARTIFICIAL LIGHT AFTER ONSET OF LAYING
Its egg mass which is more important than production level. Farmers have a misconception that artificial light should be started after flock reaches to peak production. But during winters due to higher feed intake , proper body weight, lack of sufficient natural light, bird will become obese if we wait for the peak prod to get achieved.This can lead to fatty liver later on So start giving artificial light as the egg mass reaches almost 1500gms( egg tray wt.) irrespective of the prod. Level of the flock.
In summers on the other hand even though the body wt. is not up to the mark due to lesser feed intake but even then better rise in production is there due to availability of too much natural light in summers. So do not start artificial light unless until normal egg mass is achieved as discussed earlier.
The first and most basic knowledge a poultry producer should have, is to know how to identify which hens are in production. Once a female chicken has reached physical maturity egg production begins.
Removing the inferior birds reduces the cost of producing eggs, reduces the incidence of disease and increases the available space for productive hens. Hens eat feed whether or not they are laying. The farmer can separate the underlaying hens from the following characterstics given in the table under :
Characterstics of a hen in production————-
1.Soft, enlarged comb & Wattles
2.Wide,moist Vent.
3.Increased distance between the pelvic bones
4.Increased distance between pelvic arch and keel
5.Velvty skin
6.Soft,Pliable,Enlarged abdomen.
7.Head will be neat and defined.
8.Eye will be bright and prominent.
9.Eye ring will be bleached.
10.Beak will be bleached
Characterstics of a hen out of production———–
1.Short,hard,shrivelled Comb and Wattles
2.Small,puckered,and dry vent
3.Little distance between the pelvic bones
4.Short distance between pelvic arch and keel
5.Tight coarse skin.
6.Firm abdomen
7.Head will be beefy and weak.
8.Eye will be dull and sunken.
9.Eye ring will be yellow.
10.beak will be yellow.
Above mentioned characterstics will easily be visible to farmer/supervisor from which the birds not in production can easily be graded.
Housefly Life Cycle
The housefly life cycle closely mirrors that of most insects: a basic cycle that begins with an egg, then develops through a larva phase, a pupa phase, and finally, into an adult. During a warm summer — optimal conditions for a housefly — the cycle, from fertilized egg to adult, spans a mere seven to 10 days.
After a male housefly chases down and fertilizes a female counterpart, she’s ready to lay her eggs. Houseflies are solitary creatures. Like the rest of the insect world, males and females do not stick together after mating and, unlike nesting insects, females do not care for or protect eggs. Females simply leave the eggs where they will be safe from predators and have plenty to eat upon hatching.
The female housefly deposits her eggs in the crevices and corners of the same kinds of decaying organic matter adults feed on. Within a day, the first larvae begin to emerge from the eggs. Also known as maggots, these worm-like creatures are little more than fleshy, sectionless tubes with hooked mouth parts used for feeding.
The maggots grow rapidly. In less than two days they’ve doubled in size and therefore must molt. Molting is a process common to many invertebrates through which a growing insect sheds its former exoskeleton and grows a new one. A maggot will molt twice more, emerging larger and more developed each time.
A FEMALE HOUSEFLY LAING EGGS
Following its third molt, larvae will burrow deep into the substance they’ve been feeding on. Their skins will darken and harden as they enter the pupa stage. Inside this protective shell, the larva will fully develop the body segments and appendages of an adult housefly.
The only visible addition to the emerging housefly is a swollen bump on the fly’s head, used to break through the shell. Since the housefly doesn’t have teeth or jaws to chew its way out, it uses this fluid-filled pouch to break through the pupae shell. Once fully emerged, the bump deflates back into the fly’s head.
A new adult housefly has, at most, three months to reproduce before it dies. With so many predators, a housefly’s average lifespan is even shorter: 21 days. Luckily for the housefly, the phrase “breeding like flies” isn’t just a figure of speech. Each female can lay up to 900 eggs during her brief life.
The very thought of a housefly infestation may prove too disturbing for many homeowners. However, the next page will describe how a manageable amount of houseflies helps regulate the local ecosystem.
Breeding Characteristics
The little house fly is smaller than the house fly, however, the size difference is difficult to distinguish. Breeding sites for the little house fly are drier than for the house fly and poultry manure is preferred over most other materials. This fly prefers shade and cooler temperatures and even circles aimlessly beneath hanging objects in the poultry house, egg room, and feed room. The little house fly is less likely to crawl on people and food than is the house fly. lt is, however, usually the fly that causes the most complaints from residents near the poultry farm. Large numbers of these flies may gather in garages, breezeways, and homes because of their preference for shade.
The house fly is known to breed in many types of organic material such as decaying plant material, spilled grain and feed, and in all kinds of animal manure. ln caged layer houses the manure is a very good location for breeding. In houses where sanitation is poor and where water spills keep the manure moist, fly breeding may especially be a problem. The house fly prefers sunlight and is a very active fly, which crawls over filth, people, and food. Because of these habits it is the most important species from the standpoint of spreading human and poultry diseases and fly-specking eggs.
Manure Management for Fly Control
Managing poultry manure in such a way that it becomes unattractive as a breeding site is an effective way to keep the fly population under control. All flies go through four life stages; egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Eggs are deposited on the breeding media (frequently poultry manure) and larva (or maggots) hatch out in the moist or wet material where they remain until ready to pupate. Pupation may occur in a drier location than where the eggs hatch. Fresh poultry manure is approximately 60 to 80% moisture. If the moisture level can be reduced to approximately 30% flies will no longer find it an ideal site for laying eggs. Another method of making manure unattractive to flies is to add water and make the manure liquid.
Dry Manure
Dry manure has several advantages in a management program. It is easier to handle, has less volume, and has less odor than liquid manure. There are three recommended methods of handling manure in a solid or dry form. The first involves a floor system with litter material used as a floor covering. For this system to work properly the litter must be kept dry and, therefore, flies are not usually a problem. A second method, used for caged layers, is frequent (usually weekly) cleaning of the house. By removing the fresh manure and spreading it on land it dries rapidly and tends to break the breeding cycle. Thorough cleaning of the building is important because any manure left in the building may still provide a fly breeding site.
Another method of handling manure in the dry form is in a deep storage area under cages. An advantage of this system is the flexibility of clean-out. Manure can remain in the storage area for a year or longer depending on the amount of storage available. Although flies can be a problem in any poultry house, they are not usually a problem with this type of manure system. Some reasons for this include: increased surface area for drying manure, dark storage area, which discourages any breeding, and natural fly predators live in the stored manure. Poultry manure that is allowed to accumulate undisturbed in a deep storage area undergoes some composting which reduces the volume of the waste. This volume reduction provides extra storage space and allows an extended storage period.
For all of these systems and particularly the frequent cleaning of a shallow pit and long-term storage to work efficiently there are several management practices that must be followed to reduce moisture in the manure. Probably the most important and perhaps the most difficult to control is preventing water leaks. In houses with cup waterers each valve has the potential for a leak. Providing adequate drainage to keep surface water out of the house is also essential. By maintaining the proper grade around the outside of the poultry house, storm water is prevented from getting into the house and getting the manure wet.
Another important management tool is proper ventilation. The proper exchange of air in the house with fresh air from outside will help move moisture laden air out of the house, which improves bird comfort, and will also help keep manure dry.
Other management practices which aid in keeping manure dry are:
1. keep watering systems clean and free of bacteria buildup which can cause diarrhea;
2. avoid rations that have a high salt content, which increase water consumption;
3. avoid very high house temperatures that increase water consumption.
Fly Control by Mechanical Measures
Fly control inside the poultry house is an easier problem to handle if flies are prevented from entering. Through the proper use of screens for doors, windows, and curtain openings the number of flies that enter the house can be minimized. Some of those flies that do enter the house can be controlled by electrical insect traps and bait stations. Traps are usually designed with some type of light to attract insects and then some type of electrically charged grid to kill them. These are best used as a supplement to other fly control practices. Bait stations are most effective in work areas where the surroundings are kept clean.
Fly Control by Chemical Measures
As a last alternative to good management and sanitation programs, insecticides can be used effectively to complete the task of fly control. It must be re-emphasized that insecticides should not be used instead of good management. In any situation where insecticides are used in or around the poultry farm only those products which are approved for poultry farm use should be considered and then only when the directions for use are carefully followed.
Several methods of application including residual sprays, space sprays, vapor strips, fly baits, and larvicides can be considered for poultry farm use. several insecticides that are approved for use in poultry houses and if used according to directions do not result in injury to the birds or residue contamination in eggs or meat.
Residual sprays may be used on the outside of the building, particularly around doors and windows including the vegetation growing in those areas, and on the inside on ceilings, trusses, electrical wires, light fixtures, or other equipment in the house. Some of the residual sprays can only be used when no birds are in the house, for use when birds are present. Control of flies for up to four weeks can be expected if surfaces are thoroughly coated to the point of dripping.
Bait stations can also help control the fly population on poultry farms. The bait stations usually contain an insecticide (such as those listed in Table 1) plus an attractant such as sugar. Hailing should be used in conjunction with another method of control; alone it is not eflective in controlling the population. Baits should always be placed out of reach of the birds.
Vapor strips can be effective in a fly control program. These strips are readily available and, when used according to label directions, give off a vapor which kills flies in a confined area. Use of these products in the poultry house is not recommended due to the large amount of air movement. Larvicides are another way of controlling flies. There are two types of larvicides that can be used. The most common type that has been used for some time is one that can be sprayed directly on manure. With this type of application the intent is to kill fly larvae (maggots) that are developing in the manure. To obtain desired results the insecticide must penetrate the manure and come in contact with the larvae. There is sometimes some difficulty in obtaining desired results because of the constant addition of fresh manure. This method of fly control should be reserved for treatment of trouble areas that have developed when other methods of control have failed. There are some additional potential problems associated with the application of larvicides to manure. One is the possible resistance development by flies. Another potential problem is the indiscriminate killing of natural parasites and predators.
The second type is a feed-through larvicide which is included in the feed and then functions in the manure. Larvadex 0.3% Premix is available as a feed-through insecticide for use with caged layers for the control of manure breeding flies. A complete house cleanout should precede the use of Larvadex in the feed. Following label direction is very important in the use of this product and continuous feeding is not recommended. When flies become active the Larvadex should then be incorporated into the feed at the recommended level and fed continuously for four to six weeks. After this initial feeding period an alternating program of feeding five to seven days and withdrawing for five to seven days should be followed.
Larvadex is available for use with caged layers only. It should not be used in broiler feed or feed used for any other species of poultry. Meat and eggs from breeder birds being fed Larvadex should not be used for human consumption. For spent fowl there is a three-day withdrawal period prior to slaughter. Precautions should be taken in the use of the manure from birds fed Larvadex. Soil application at rates not to exceed five tons per acre is acceptable. However, manure should not be applied to small grain crops that will be grazed or harvested.
For best management, fly control should be included in any poultry management program. Because of cost and the fact that other insects are also killed, chemical sprays and larvicides should be considered only when good management and mechanical controls have not been successful.
Ventilation is essential in poultry operations. Important environmental challengesinclude weather extremes and rapidly changing conditions. Colder months can mean difficulty in providing adequate ventilation while trying to maintain a comfortable temperature within the shed. Hot weather can mean difficulty in providing enough ventilation for the heat to escape the house. Whether the temperature is hot or cold, it is important to supply the birds with adequate ventilation to bring in fresh air andexhaust carbon dioxide.
The primary purpose of having a ventilation system is to provide air exchange.Ventilation is needed to remove excess heat. Dust particles and moisture producedduring the normal activities such as metabolism, respiration and evaporation as well asharmful gases and disease causing organisms that may be present. A ventilation system should provide fresh, oxygen rich air for birds which promotes optimal production.
Second a good ventilation system should distribute air uniformly throughout the building without creating any “Dead Air Zones”
Third, the ventilation system should control airspeeds within the room. During thecold weather, entering air may need to have adequate speed to accomplish proper mixing and distribution, but the air speed must be controlled so as to not create drafts onbirds. During hot weather, air movement minimizes temperature increase within bird space. While accomplishing these essential functions, ventilation system also need to be easy to operate and maintain.
During the cold weather the producer often close up their sheds in an attempt to maintain higher inside temperature, which usually result in small temperature rise. Improper ventilation will result in increased humidity and possibly condensation andbuild up of carbon dioxide, ammonia and odour. Viruses and other respiratory pathogens that may be present will find these conditions well suited for their growth and ready transmission to bring birds sharing a common airspace.
Moisture accumulation occurs as a result of a lack of fresh air to remove moisture produced by birds. Humid air is more prone to condense on cold surfaces, which can lead to wet litter and equipment failures. Minimize condensation by keeping the relative humidity of the poultry house at 70% or lower and by insulating areas such as the ceiling. A build up of carbon dioxide and ammonia will result in poor overall flock health and potential death. Pathogen build up often is overlooked because it is difficult to assess them directly. However this probably is the greatest risk for producers because by the time infection thresholds are exceeded and disease symptoms are noticed, the entire flock will be infected.
Natural Ventilation
The best way to prevent adverse effects of inadequate ventilation is to keep steps to ensure the birds always are provided with fresh air. The simplest way to provide fresh air is to use the natural ventilation systems that already may be built into the chicken house.Natural ventilation takes advantage of basic principles of warm, humid air wanting to rise and wind producing pressures on building surfaces. Natural ventilation useswindows, panels and low hanging doors in broilers and open sheds in layers, to allow fresh air, all of which are most effective when located on all four corners of the housing facility.
Determinations for how far to open windows and doors can be made on the basis of air temperature, prevailing wind direction, age of birds, amount of moisture and the level of gaseous build up within the house. It is important to place and orient the chicken house properly to take advantage of prevailing winds. Warm-weather openings need to be exposed to prevailing winds, which in Nebraska generally means the ridge should run east and west. The house should be situated away from any windbreaks, buildings or other obstacles desired to south or south east. In addition to windows and doors, roof ventilators can be used but require more practice and monitoring to be effective. When placing openings, consider that birds, especially chicks, do not tolerate direct drafts of cool air.
Natural ventilation usually is the cheapest and simplest method that can be used to provide birds with the fresh air they need. Modern poultry houses with natural ventilation often include control systems that automatically adjust the size of openings using fully adjustable curtains, panels, baffles, etc. This increases the initial cost, but may be worthwhile for the producer who finds monitoring and controlling the environment manually an overlay daunting task and can justify the investment with improved health and performance.
As poultry is becoming dense day by day it is advisable to leave a minimum height of 8 feet for the litter collection and 12 feet above that till the roof in the layers. The distance between the two sheds should be 3 times the height of the shed. More the ventilation, lesser the disease, healthier the bird and more the productions.
Mechanical Ventilation
Forced ventilation is an alternative to natural ventilation. Also referred to as mechanical ventilation, it uses a combination of electric fans, air inlets and controls (thermostats, timers, etc.) to regulate temperature and humidity. The primary advantage of forced ventilation is that the producer has reasonably direct control over the rate of airflow delivered. Moderating indoor temperature swings often is a major goal of producers who select these systems. Having a controlled system eliminates much of the guesswork, as one can atleast in theory simply set the controls to the desired temperature and let the machines do the rest of the work. This type of system has its disadvantages, though, as cost can be a prohibitive factor. Mechanical ventilation systems generally require greater initial investment in equipment, require regular maintenance to perform properly and have a higher cost of operations in terms of energy consumption. While installing these systems one should always in keep in mind the power supply situation where the farm is located. One should have a strong power backup in case of power failure.
Ventilation systems usually are designed for a specific house, based on the number and size of birds housed in the facility, as well as the volume in cubic feed of air in the house. Generally, a system should provide one air exchange per minute or more during the hot weather. The system also needs to be adjustable to maintain an airflow rate as low as 1 to 5 air exchanges per hour during the cold weather. To calculate the volume of air that needs to be removed t o produce one air exchange, use the following formula : length * Width * Height ( average height ) of the airspace. To obtain the airflow rate ( fan capacity in cubic feet per minute(cfm) ) neede for given indoor conditions, multiply the air exchange volume( cubic feet) by number of air exchanges recommended per minute for those conditions. The result can be used to determine the number and capacity of fans that need to be operating, as well as the total inlet area needed.
As an example, consider a broiler a house that is 30 feet wide, 200 ft long, and 8 ft tall at the sidewalls, with a pitched roof and no ceiling. Assuming the peak is about 12 ft tall, air exchange volume is :
1 air exchange volume = 30*200*{(8+12)/2} = 60000 cubic ft.
Now in hot weather , ventilation rate of air exchange needed is 1 per minute, the total fan capacity needed is (60000 cubic ft/air exchange)*(1 air exchange/minute) = 60000 CFM.
Now if a fan is having a cfm of 10000 then you will be requiring 60000/10000=6 fans for this shed for one air exchange.
Both the fan capacity and inlet opening would need to be adjusted to maintain proper air exchange, distribution and air speed at bird level.
Effective ventilating poultry facilities cannot be stressed enough, whether using a natural or mechanical type of ventilation systems. A simple method to test the adequacy of a ventilation system is to use your nose and eyes. If you smell strong ammonia or observe thick cobwebs the ventilation system is adequate. Poor ventilation can result in poor respiratory health indicated by coughing and sneezing birds, and a higher rate of Ascites syndrome related deaths in heavy meat birds. Providing fresh air with an adequate ventilation system and removing excess heat and moisture, gases and other air contaminants from your chicken house will help produce healthier and more productive chickens.
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